A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect
Date: 2020-05-14T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Chinese language -- Grammar; Chinese language -- Dialects -- China -- Shanghai

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Title: A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

Author: Joseph Edkins

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Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF COLLOQUIAL CHINESE, AS EXHIBITED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT ***

A GRAMMAR

OF

COLLOQUIAL CHINESE,

AS EXHIBITED IN THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT

BY

J. EDKINS, B.A., Univ. Coll. Lond.

Of the London Missionary Society.

SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.

SHANGHAI:

PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS.

1868.

PREFACE
to first edition 1853.

Among works on Chinese Grammar, that of Prémare, written a century and a half ago, still stands preeminent. Besides a more extended knowledge, he possessed a better appreciation of the peculiar beauties of Chinese style, than any other writer on the subject. But it has been justly remarked that his work, abounding in good examples, is deficient in order, and the exhibition of principles. Remusat, in his accurate and learned work, has made great use of Prémare, but he has given less attention than his predecessor, to those numerous groups, in which ideas or sounds are repeated, and he says nothing on propositions. The deficiency that the reader of these works feels in the treatment of groups of words, has been pointed out by Bazin in his clever Essay on Colloquial Mandarin. He quotes the section on words, in Gutzlaff’s Notices on Chinese Grammar, containing a classification of compound words. Partly from the suggestion of that work, and more from his own researches, he has constructed a comprehensive system of grouped words (mots composés).

The little work now in the hands of the reader, is an attempt to elucidate colloquial Chinese, by taking a limited field of enquiry, that of the dialect of a single district. By this means it has been hoped, something might be done to help the causes of Chinese philology, by collecting facts, which writers having a wider scope, have overlooked.

There are aids for the study of the southern dialects of China, but no one has yet written on the speech of the rich and populous province of Kiáng-nán. On Missionary and Commercial grounds, it is time that some attempt should be made to supply this want.

The mandarin student will meet with scarcely any new idioms here. Of words, there are a few tens not used in the fashionable colloquial. It is in sounds that the greatest variation exists, and an attempt has therefore been made to form a correct nomenclature for tones, and for the alphabetic elements of spoken words. For the latter, Sir W. Jones’ system, as introduced by J. R. Morrison in the Chinese Repository, has, with a few necessary modifications, been adopted as by far the best.

For the tones, a new nomenclature is here proposed, based on their real character, as distinct from the arbitrary names, which, though they doubtless represented exactly the tones used by their author, are not applicable, except for convenience sake, to those of other dialects.

Upwards of twenty natural tones, from which each dialect chooses its own set, varying from four to eight, are here described. The early Roman Catholic Missionaries wrote much on this singular characteristic of spoken Chinese, but Bayer in his abstract of their system, in the Museum Sinicum, has not given a very intelligible account of it.

Attention has been paid throughout to the mode of grouping words, as a subject second to none in interest and importance. Some similarity, though an independent one, will be found here to the system adopted by M. Bazin.

The grammars of Morrison and Marshman, beside the excellent works already alluded to, have been of occasional service, especially the latter, which with all its diffuseness, is a useful and suggestive book.

The assistance of friends has been kindly afforded. To Dr. Medhurst special thanks are due, for revising the sheets as they passed through the press, thus adding much to the correctness of the work; and to Rev. T. M’Clatchie, for material assistance in regard to the laws of Shanghai tones.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.
on sound, 1–57.
Section | Page
1. Alphabet. Table of sounds. | 1.
2. On the Chinese tones. Natural tones described. Tones of several dialects. | 6.
3. On Shanghai tones. Tones in state of transition. Relation of tones to music and accents. | 13.

4. Alphabetic elements of the sounds. The 36 initials of the Dictionaries, Represent the sounds of the old language, and are now a provincial pronunciation. The Shanghai dialect, a branch of that system. Finals. Comparative table of Shanghai and Mandarin finals. The final consonants n, ng and k.

43.

PART II.
on the parts of speech, 58–162.
Section | Page
1. Native divisions. Division proposed by a native grammarian. | 58.

2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects. Primitive words exemplified. Relation to the mandarin of the Historical Romances. Compared with the dialect of Sú-cheú.

60.

3. On Substantives. | 66.

4. On Numeral and Quantitative Auxiliary Substantives. Distinctive Particles. Significant Particles. Weights and measures. Collectives.

81.

5. On Adjectives. | 89.
6. On Pronouns. | 101.
7. On Verbs. Modes of grouping. Kinds of Verbs. Mode. Tense. | 111.
8. Propositions, and Postpositions. | 134.
9. On Adverbs. | 136.
10. On Conjunctions. | 154.
11. On Expletives and Interjections. | 160.

PART III.
on syntax, 163–214.
Section | Page
1. On Government. | 163.
2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech. Adjective as Substantive. Verb as Substantive, and as Adjective, &c. | 164.
3. On Government of Words in Groups. | 170.
4. On Repetition. | 176.
5. On Order in Groups. | 181.
6. On Simple Propositions. | 187.
7. On Subordinate Sentences. | 196.
8. On Coordinate Sentences. | 205.
9. On Antithesis. | 210.
10. On Rhythmus. | 212.

Appendix |
I. On the 文理 or higher colloquial used by literary men. | 215.

II. On the Native Tables of Initials and Finals. Imitated from the Sanscrit. Geographical outline of the dialects that agree with the dictionary system.

216.

Addenda. |
Errata |

RULES FOR USING THE ORTHOGRAPHY HERE ADOPTED.

1. The accent marks long vowels í, é, á, ó, ú, pronounced as the vowel in feel, fail, father, foal, fool.

2. Vowels not accented are the five short vowels corresponding to these; e.g. in fin, fen, fan, fop, fun.

3. The remaining vowels are ö, ü, au, û, eu, pronounced as in könig, une, auburn, 書, 頭.

4. The initial consonants k, t, p, f, s, are pronounced high and with the English and Scotch sound. When k, t, p, take an aspirate as in the pronunciation of some parts of Ireland and the United States, they are written k’, t’, p’. These with the vowels and h’ a strong aspirate, constitute the upper series.

5. The initials g, d, b, y, z with ng, n, m, l, rh, a soft aspirate h, and vowel initials form the lower series. The italic k, t, etc., are to be pronounced two full musical notes lower than the roman k, t, etc., and are counted as the same with g, d, &c.

6. The nasals m, ng, n, without a vowel are italicised.

7. Final n when italicised is pronounced very indistinctly.

8. The superior commas on the left and right of a word, mark the second and third tones. Final h, k and g, indicate the short tone. Words not thus marked are all in the first tone.

The series is known by the initial as in the native mode of spelling, 反切, Fan-t’sih. The capital letters denote dialects as—

S. | Shánghái | sound.
M. | Mandarin | „
C. | Colloquial | „
R. | Reading | „

A GRAMMAR

OF THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT,

PART 1.
ON SOUND.

Section 1. Alphabet.

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the following:—

Symbols. | Pronunciation and Examples.
á | as a in father; 揩 k’á, wipe; 拜 pá‘,worship.
a | as a in sand, or in hat; 鉛 k’an, lead; 蠟 lah, wax.
au | as in Paul, or as a in fall, or o in gone; 老 ’lau, old. Aú expresses the mandarin sound.
b or p | as in 病 ping‘, sickness; 生病 sáng bing‘, to be sick.
d or t | as in 道 tau‘, doctrine; 神道 zun dau‘, men canonized for their virtues.
dz | a compound of d and z; 盡 dzing‘, exhaust.
dzz | do. as dze in adze. The second z marks a peculiar vowel sound which is sometimes between i and e, 辭 dzz, to leave.
é | as ai in fail, or a in male; 來 lé, come.
e | as e in led or let; 十 seh, ten.
eu | nearly as ou in cousin lengthened; 手 ’seu, hand. Eú expresses the mandarin sound, as ow in cow.
f | as in 夫 fú, or 轎夫 kiau‘ fû, chair-bearer.
g or k | as in 其 kí, he, before i, ü often heard like ji; 共衆 kóng‘ tsóng‘, altogether.

h

a feeble aspirate, often lost; 合 heh, combine; 皇 hwong, emperor. When quite lost, as in the latter word, it will be omitted.

h and h’

a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to sh when occurring before í and ü; 海 ’hé, sea; 喜 ’h’í, glad. Before í and ü, the superior comma will be used.

í | as i in marine; 西 sí, west.
i | as i in sing or sit; 心 sing, heart.
dj | nearly as j in June; 序 djü‘, preface. This sound may also be read z. The natives use either.
k | 古今 ’kú kiun, ancient and modern.

k’

a strongly aspirated sound 空 k’ung, empty. It is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring before i and ü, for the aspirated c‘h but should be separated from that sound in careful pronunciation; 去 k’í‘, go; usually heard chi‘ aspirated. [1]

l | 禮 ’li, propriety.
m or m | 米 ’mí, rice; 唔沒 m méh, there is no more.
n | 女, ’nü, woman.

ng or ng

a nasal consonant used at the beginning or close of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound accompanies it, it is marked ng; 江 kong, river; 我 ’ngú I; 五 ’ng, five

au, en, ûn

a slight nasal, best heard before another word; 但 tan‘, but; 敢 ’kén, dare; 幹 kûn, dry; 算 sûn‘, count; 搬轉 pèn ’tsén, to whril round.

ó | as o in go; 怕 p’ô‘, fear.
o | as o in gong and got; 當 tong, ought, bear; 落 loh, fall.
ö | as ö in Göthe; 端 tön, correct; 看 k’ön‘, see; 奪 töh, rob.
p | 比 pí, compare.
p’ | as p with a strong aspirate; 譬 p’i‘, like.
rh | a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in mandarin; 而 rh, and.
s | 所 ’sú, which, therefore.

sz

a peculiar Chinese sibilant, [2] pronounced as in mandarin, and nearly as se in castle, whistle, t, l, being supposed omitted; 詩 sz, poetry.

t | 多 tú, many.
t’ | as t with a strong aspirate; 拖 t’ú to draw.
ts | 做 tsú‘, do.
ts’ | the last strongly aspirated; 秋 ts‘ieu, Autumn.
tsz | a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in mandarin, as ts in hats; 子 ’tsz, a son; 知 tsz, know.
ts’z | the above with a strong aspirate 雌 ts’z, female.
ú | as u in rule; 素 sú‘, common, plain.
u | as u in run; 門 mun, door; 等 ’tung, wait.
ü | French u as in vertu; German ü as in Tübingen; 虛 hü empty.
û | 處 ts’û‘ place. This vowel is between ó and ú.
v or f | 佛 feh, Buddha; 房 fong, house. More of v than f.
w | 光 kwong, light; 王 wong, king.
y | 右 yeu‘, right-hand; 要 yau‘, to want.
z or s | 象 siáng‘, elephant; 坐 zú‘, sit.
An apostrophe ’ preceding the word, denotes the second tone.
A comma ‘ following the word, denotes the third tone.
The fourth tone will be written with h, k or g final.
Words left unmarked are in the first tone.[3]

[1] When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition from k‘i to c‘hi.

[2] This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but like e in castle.

[3] The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b, g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A final italic letter denotes a nasal.

2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds. Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b, d, g, dj, m ng, n, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.

3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—

Of vowels, eu as in 口 ’k’eu, mouth; ö as in 安 ön, rest. û as in 鑽 tsûn, to bore. A final r should be carefully avoided in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jön, boat, 滿 ’mön, full, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, book is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh, and the nasals m, n, ng, also the strong aspirate h’; also the three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1] The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the 南音 Nán yin, Southern pronunciation, as it was early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e. hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details. Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.

[1] Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit.

6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect.

Fifteen vowels.
Quantity of syll. | Value.
long or short. | á father
do. | a hand, back
long | au Paul
do. | é May
short | e let
long | eu cousin
do. | í marine
long or short. | i sing
do. | ó go
do. | o long, lock
do. | ö Göthe
long | ú rule
long or short. | u sun, suck
long | ü Tübingen
do. | û as in 書 sû

Thirty three consonants.
| High | Low
| Thin | Asperated | Broad | Nasals & Liquids | Imperfect nasals
Mutes | k, t, p | k’, t’, p’ | g, d, b | ng, n, m | ng, n, m
Labio-dentals | f | | v | |
Sibilants and aspirates | s, sz, tz, tsz, h’ | ts’, ts’z | z, zz, dz, dj, dzz, h | ni |
Semi-vocals | | | | l, rh |

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.

Section 2. On the Tones.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái patois among the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1] The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d, b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical differences are few.

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also many eccentricities of pronunciation.

[1] Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds, the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to which reference is here made.

8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 ping, even, záng, rising, k’ü‘, going, zeh, entering, because, being the same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often incomprehensible.

A. Upper acute tone. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íen heaven; while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first tone.

B. Upper even tone. This is a sound without deflection like a long note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone, as in 水 sz; water; 火 hú, fire, 土 t’ú, earth. In Sz-ch’uen mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

C. Upper quick rising tone. This is nearly like the staccato of musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, a letter, 菜 ts’é, vegetables. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.

D. Upper slow rising tone. This is a prolonged intonation rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe dialect.

E. Upper short tone. This is the intonation of syllables short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short ă of m-ă-gis, becomes long by position in magnus. The converse of this example takes place in Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short a and o are all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with a final h; the presence or absence of the accent marking the quantity of the vowel, while that of h marks the quantity of the syllable; as in 濕 sáh, wet; 薩 sah, in Pú sah, disciple of Buddha; 哭 k’óh weep; 悪 oh, wicked. This tone might be divided into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great subdivision.

F. Lower acute tone. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if set very low, it will be the upper third tone.

G. Lower even tone. A low musical sound without deflection. It is the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, can. 埋, má, bury. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.

H. Lower quick rising tone. This intonation is nearly that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king and Amoy.

I. Lower slow rising tone. This is the intonation of remonstrance as in “Et tù Brute,” if tù were spoken in a deep and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.

J. Lower short tone. The remarks appended to the corresponding upper tone apply also to this. 學習 hoh dzih, to learn and practice.

K. Upper circumflex. This is an intonation high in key and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.

L. Lower circumflex. This corresponds to the preceding in character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.

[1] Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.

[2] If different symbols were invented for the long and short vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient in vowel marks.

9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described, some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.

“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed.
“The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong.
“The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance.
“The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up.”[1]

This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

[1] 平聲平道莫低昂
上聲高呼猛烈强
去聲分明哀遠道
入聲短促急收藏

10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to tones, are such as—

高 低, kau tí, high and low (key of the tone).

陰 陽, yun yáng, high and low (key of the tone).

緩 急, wén‘ kih, slow and quick (time of the tone).

平 仄 ping tsáh, even, deflected. 仄 is further divided into 上 去 入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, rising, departing, entering.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—

長 短 dzáng, ’dön,[1] long and short (time in reference to the syllables).

These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of natural tones has been made: thus—

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low even tone.

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.

The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which also has tones.

[1] This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will be subsequently pointed out.

11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]

i. mandarin tones. 北音

Tones

Nan-King

Pe-king

Hó-nan
K‘ai-fung

Sz-ch’uen

Upper First,

上平

l, e,

u, e, or
u, q, f,

u, q, e,

u, e,

Second, | 上 | l, s, r, | l, q, r, | l, q, r, | q, f,
Third, | 去 | q, f, | l, q, f, | l, q, f, | l, s, r,

Fourth,

入

sh,

u, e,
l, q, r,
l, q, f, &c.

u, q, e,
l, q, r,
l, q, r,

l, q, e, or
l, q, f,

Lower first,

下平

l, q, r,

l, q, r,

u, q, r,

l, q, e, or
l, q, f

ii. kiang-nan and cheh-kiang. 南音

| Tones | Sú-cheú | Sháng-hái | Ning-pó
Upper Series | First, | 上平 | u, q, f, | u, q, f, | u, q, f,
Second, | 上上 | u, e, | u, e, | u, s, r,
Third, | 上去 | u, s, r, | u, q, r, | u, e,
Fourth, | 上入 | u, sh, | u, sh, | u, sh,
Lower Series | First, | 下平 | l, q, r, | l, e, | l, s, c, q, f,
Second, | 下上 | l, q, f, | l, s, r, | l, s, r,
Third, | 下去 | l, s, r, | l, q, r, | l, s, r, or e,
Fourth, | 下入 | l, sh, | l, sh, | l, sh,

iii. fuh-kien.

Tones | Amoy and Cháng-cheú
Upper, | first, | u, e,
do. | second, | u, q, f,
do. | third, | l, f,
do. | fouth. | u, sh, f,
Lower, | first, | l, q, r,
do. | second, | u, q, f,
do. | third, | l, e,
do. | fouth. | u, sh, f,

[1] u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow. e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short.

12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city and two others 淮陽 Hwái yáng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling. They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘ emperor and 地 di‘ earth, as different in tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the alphabetical form tí, dí.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written chúh, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]

[1] Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.

[2] The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former accentus. The distinction between accent and quantity which existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas. (Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is described as the negation of the acute and to be understood where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone; while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the other to words. But when it is remembered that those two branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in language-forming power that has taken place in modern times, have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese. It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is but imperfectly known in modern times.

Section 3. On the Shanghai tones.

13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more prominent of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the accent determined.[1]

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—

Long vowels. | Short vowels. | Other vowels.
á | rather. | a | sang. | au | au Paul.
é | ray. | e | set. | eu | eu as in 頭 teu.
í | read. | i | sing. | ö | Göthe.
ó | road. | o | song. | ü | vertu.
ú | rude. | u | sung. | û | as in 書 sû.

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—

aú | á, ú, combined. | Prolongation of au.
eú | cow. | Prolongation of eu.
ei | kine. | The Greek, ei.

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R. Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for application to the Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French eu in douleur, or the common short English u as in bun prolonged ’or the corresponding mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu; from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eú or uú, as in English cloud. The shorter form eu has no exact English equivalent.

[1] In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given. Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but without the Chinese characters, are annexed.

14. The upper first tone. This is the common quick falling sound, usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.

瓜 kwó, melon. | 鍾 tsúng, bell.
風 fóng, wind. | 多 tú, many.
輕 k’iung, light. | 飛 fí, to fly.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.

希喜戲歇 hí ’hí hí‘ hih
多覩妒篤 tú ’tú tú‘ tóh,
枯苦課哭 k’ú ’k’ú k’ú‘ k’óh,

In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long i becomes short i, and long u becomes long o.

15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the lower).

Tones. | Place of the Accent.
p.p. | 今朝 | kiun tsau, to-day, | ult.
| 相公 | siáng kóng, sir, husband, | „
| 工夫 | kúng fú, work, | pen.
| 當中 | tong tsóng, in the middle, | ult.
p.s. | 天頂 | t’íen ting, the zenith, | „
| 多少 | tú sau, how many? | „
| 恩主 | un tsû, benefactor, | „
p.k. | 眞正 | tsun tsung, truly, | „
| 相信 | siang sing, believe, be fond of, | „
| 聲氣 | sáng kí, (c’h) sound of voice, | pen.
p.j. | 中國 | tsúng kóh, China, | „
| 彎曲 | wan k’ióh, (c’h) winding, crooked, | ult.
p.p. | 中原 | tsóng niön, China, | „
| 天堂 | t’íen dong, heaven, | „
| 差人 | ts’á niun, a messenger, | pen.
p.s. | 天理 | t’íen lí, heavenly reason, | ult.
| 裝滿 | tsong mén, to pack full, | „
| 新米 | sing mí, new rice, | pen.
p.k. | 天地 | t’íen dí, heaven and earth, | ult.
| 天亮 | t’íen liáng, daybreak, | „
| 鄕下 | h’iáng au, in the country, | pen.
p.j. | 風俗 | fóng zóh, custom, | ult.
| 新閘 | sing zah, village near Shanghai, | „

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k, and p, k, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.

16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when first in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p.p. | 蘇州人 | Sú-tseu niun, a Sú-cheú man, | ult.
p.s.p. | 天主堂 | t’íen-tsû dong, Roman Catholic Chapel, | „
p.k.k. | 挑過去 | t’iau kú-k’í, carry it past, | ant.
p.j.k. | 當得住 | tong tuh-dzû, able to stand against, | „
p.p.p. | 朝辰頭 | tsau-zun deu, in the morning, | „
p.s.k. | 千里鏡 | ts’íen-lí kiung, telescope, | ult.
p.k.p. | 三字經 | san-zz’ kiung, the Three Character Classic, | „
p.j.k. | 追勿上 | tsûi veh-zong, cannot overtake him, | ant.
p.s.s. | 多好狗 | tú-hau keu, a number of dogs, | „

Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of two or three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p. | 當心 | tong sing, take care, | pen.
| 燒香 | sau h’iáng, burn incense, | ult.
s.p. | 祖宗 | tsú tsóng, ancestors, | pen.
| 頂多 | ting tú, greatest number of, | „
| 講書 | kong sû, explain books, | „
| 水晶 | sz tsing, rock crystal, | ult.
k.p. | 貴庚 | kwé káng, your honourable age? | „
| 放心 | fong sing, be content, | „
j.p. | 插花 | ts’ah hwó, insert flowers, | „
| 忒多 | t’uk tú, too many, | „
p.p. | 明朝 | ming tsau, to-morrow, | pen.
| 良心 | liáng sing, good heart, conscience, | „
k.p.p. | 啥晨光 | sá zun-kwong, what time, | ant.
s.p. | 母親 | mú ts’ing, mother, | ult.
| 老兄 | lau hiúng, venerated brother, | „
k.p. | 地方 | tí fong, a place, | „
| 念經 | nian kiung, chant sacred books, | „
j.p. | 逆風 | niuh fóng, contrary wind, | „

Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and p.p. in this table, the tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng vú, though, fú falls in key. The same change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth tones.

18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.

Tones. | Accent.
s.p.k. | 小生意 | siau sáng-í, small retail trade, | pen.
k.p.p. | 雇工人 | kú-kóng niun, workman, | „
j.p.k. | 束腰帶 | sóh-yan tá, waist-band, | „
p.p.k. | 文昌殿 | vun-ts’áng díen, temple of the patron of Literature, | „
s.p.p. | 軟心腸 | niön sing-dzáng, merciful heart, | ult.
k.p.j. | 大英國 | ta-yung kóh, England, | ant.
j.p.p. | 讀書人 | tók-sû niun, educated man, | ult.

Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.

Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.

19. The upper second tone. It is a high even tone without deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation.

Ex. | 水 sz, water. | 好 hau, good.

火 hú, fire.

討 t’au, beg.

許 hé, promise.

點 tíen, point (verb or subs.)

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.s. | 恩典 | un tíen, favour, | pen.
| 酗酒 | h’iúng tsieu, intoxicated, | „
s.s. | 滾水 | kwun sz, boiling water, | pen.
| 頂好 | ting hau, the best possible, | „
k.s. | 救火 | kieú hú, save from fire, | ult.
| 要緊 | yau kiun, important, | „
j.s. | 作主 | tsok tsû, to be master, | „
| 出首 | ts’eh seu, accuser, | „
p.s. | 門口 | mun k’eu, door-way, | „
| 財主 | dzé tsû, rich man, | „
s.s. | 勉强 | míen k’iáng, by compulsion, (c‘h) | „
| 耳𦖋 | ní tú, ears, | „
k.s. | 面孔 | míen k’óng, face, | „
j.s. | 折手 | zeh seu, maimed hand, | „
| 曆本 | lih pun, almanac, | „
p.j.s. | 燒熱水 | sau nyih sz, prepare hot water, | „
p.k.s. | 唔要緊 | m yau kiun, not important, | ant.
j.j.s. | 勿缺少 | veh k’iöh sau, not deficient, (c‘h) | ult.
j.j.s. | 實骨子 | seh kweh tsz, in reality, | pen.

Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of the above examples.

Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú, and 勉强 pronounced míen‘ k’iáng.

21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. | Accent.
s.p.p. | 請先生 | ts’ing síen-sáng, engage a teacher, | ant.
s.s.p. | 考舉人 | k’au kü-niun, be examined for Master of Arts decree, | pen.
s.s.k. | 手低下 | seu tí-au, under (my) control, | ant.
s.j.k. | 打磕瞌 | táng k’eh-ts’óng, nod the head when sleeping, | ult.
s.p.p. | 火輪船 | hú-lun zén, steamer, | „
s.k.k. | 土地廟 | t’ú-dí miau, temple of the Lares arvales, | „
s.j.s. | 考勿起 | k’au-veh-k’í, cannot venture to be examined, | „

Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the above examples may be called enclitics or proclitics. As such they leave the emphasis to rest on the significant words.

22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. | Accent.
s.p. | 小干 | siau kûn, a boy, | ult.
| 喜歡 | h’í hwén, glad, | „
j.s.s. | 白滾水 | páh kwun-sz, simply boiling water (weak tea), | „
| 打窵 | táng tiau, shoot birds, | „
| 水手 | sz seu, sailors, | „
s.k. | 寶貝 | pau pé, precious, | „
| 請教 | ts’ing kiau, will you inform me? | „
| 小菜 | siau ts’é, vegetables, | „
s.j. | 可惜 | k’ó sih, alas! | pen.
| 曉得 | h’iau tuh, understand, | „
| 打鐵 | táng t’ih, work in iron, | ult.
s.p. | 水牛 | sz nieu, water buffalo, | „
| 保全 | pau dzíen, preserve, | „
| 水桐 | sz dóng, water bucket, | „
s.s. | 苦惱 | k’ú nau, unfortunate, | „
| 倒滿 | tau mén, pour full, | „
s.k. | 胆大 | tan dú, courageous, | „
| 體面 | t’í míen, respectable, | „
| 請坐 | ts’ing zú, please sit down, | „
s.j. | 搶奪 | ts’iáng döh, rob and plunder, | „
| 寶石 | pau záh, precious stone, | „

Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit that there are exceptional cases.

23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.s.p. | 齊祖宗 | tsá tsú-tsóng, sacrifice to ancestors, | ult.
s.s.k. | 比比看 | pí-pí k’ön, compare them, | „
k.s.j. | 做好日 | tsú hau-nyih, keep a wedding, | pen.
j.s.p. | 一本頭 | ih-pun deu, just one volume, | ult.
p.s.p. | 秦如皇 | dzing sz wong, the emperor who burnt the books, | „
k.s.j. | 字紙簏 | zz-tsz lóh, written-paper basket, | „
j.s.p. | 踛起來 | lók k’í-lé, stand up, | „

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. The upper third tone. This tone being both high in key and deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Ex. | 葬 tsong, bury. | 變 píen, change. | 四 sz, four.
寸 ts’un, inch. | 姓 sing, family name. | 店 tíen, shop.

Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. | Accent.
k. p. | 意思 | í sz, object, idea, | pen.
| 看書 | k’ön sû, to read, | ult.
| 種花 | tsóng hwó, plant cotton or flowers, | „
k.s. | 放火 | fong hú, set on fire, | pen.
| 禁止 | kiung tsz, forbid, | „
k.k. | 富貴 | fú kwé, rich and honourable, | ult.
| 教訓 | kiau h’iün, instruct, | „
k.j. | 愛惜 | é sih, love and pity, | „
| 過歇 | kú h’ih, at present, | „
k.p. | 算盤 | sûn bén, Chinese abacus, | „
| 教門 | kiau mun, form of instruction, | „
k.s. | 怕冷 | p’ó láng, afraid of cold, | „
| 快馬 | k’wá mó, a swift horse, | „
k.k. | 對面 | dé míen, the opposite, | ult.
| 算命 | sûn ming, to calculate destiny, | „
k.j. | 氣力 | k’í lih, strength, | pen.
| 做賊 | tsú zuh, be a thief, | ult.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is pronounced ’tsau yung‘.

25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.

Tones. | Accent.
k.p.s. | 照規矩 | tsau kwé-kü, follow the custom, | pen.
k.s.k. | 種小菜 | tsóng siau-ts’é, plant vegetables, | „
k.k.k. | 世界上 | sz-ká long, in the world, | ult.
k.j.p. | 派出來 | p’á ts’eh-lé, place in divisions, | ant.
k.p.k. | 啥時候 | sá zz-eu, what time?, | „
k.p.p. | 做成功 | tsú zung-kóng, to complete, | ult.
k.s.s | 敬父母 | kiung ’vú-mú, reverence parents, | „
k.j.k. | 帶勿動 | tá veh-dóng, cannot carry, | ant.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or second tone.

26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. | Accent.
p.k. | 生意 | sáng í, trade, | pen.
| 東喊 | tóng han, eastwards, | „
| 爽快 | song k’wá, in good health, | „
s.k. | 寫信 | siá sing, write a letter, | ult.
| 打算 | táng sûh, consider, plan, | pen.
k.k. | 正派 | tsung p’á, correct conduct, | ult.
| 做戲 | tsú h’í, act a play, | „
j.k. | 得意 | tuh í, obtain one’s wishes, | „
| 失信 | seh sing, be unfaithful, | „
p.k. | 皇帝 | wong tí, emperor, | „
| 回信 | wé sing, letter in answer, | „
s.k. | 禮拜 | lí pá, worship, | „
| 馬掛 | mo kwó jacket, | „
k.k. | 造化 | ’zau hwó, fortunately, to create, | „
| 地界 | tí ká, boundary of land, | „
| 罪過 | zé kú, sin, an impropriety, | pen.
k.j.k. | 看勿見 | k’ön veh-kíen, do not see, | ant.
p.j.k. | 搖勿過 | yau veh-kú, cannot row past, | „
j.k.k. | 勿要怕 | veh-yau p’ó, do not fear, | pen.
j.j.k. | 勿適意 | veh suh-í, not in health, | ult.
s.s.k | 冷小菜 | láng siau ts’é, cold vegetables, | „

Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally adapted to receive it.

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art. 24. Obs. iv. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle, is short in time as if it were táng‘.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.k.p. | 担過來 | tan kú-lé, bring it over, | ant.
s.k.k. | 寫信去 | siá-sing k’í, send a letter, | „
k.k.s. | 細細哩 | sí-sí lí, accurately, | „
j.k.k. | 忒過分 | t’uk kú-vun, excessive, | ult.
p.k.j. | 難過歇 | nan kú-h’ih, at present, | „
s.k.k. | 理性上 | lí-sing long, according to reason, | ant.
k.k.p. | 右半爿 | yeu pén ban, right-hand side, | ult.
j.k.j. | 勿見得 | veh kíen tuh, it is not likely, | pen.

Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.

Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the others, it frequently loses the accent.

28. The upper fourth tone. This tone is a short syllable, high and bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. 角 kok, horn; 刻 k’uk, quarter of an hour; 法 fah, method.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.

Tones. | Accent.
j.p. | 出身 | ts’eh sun, rank or profession, | ult.
| 發風 | fah fóng, wind rising, | „
j.s. | 爀顯 | hok h’íen, lightning, | „
| 出產 | ts’eh ts’an, field productions, | „
j.k. | 百姓 | pák sing, people (hundred names,) | „
j.j. | 法則 | fah tsuh, method, | „
j.p. | 出門 | ts’eh mun, to go from home, | „
| 客人 | k’áh niun, stranger, guest, | pen.
| 磕頭 | k’eh deu, to make a prostration, | ult.
j.s. | 瞎眼 | hah ngan, blind eyes, | „
j.k. | 識字 | suh zz, able to read, | „
| 質地 | tseh dí, natural powers, | „
k.j. | 濶狹 | k’weh ah, width, (broad, narrow,) | pen.
| 骨肉 | kweh nióh, blood relations, | „

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. | Accent.
j.p.s. | 忒伊兩 | t’eh-í liáng, with him, | ult.
j.s.p. | 縮轉來 | sók tsén-lé, return, | „
j.k.j. | 撥過歇 | peh-kú-h’ih, given, | ant.
j.k.p. | 跌下來 | tih ’au-lé, fall down, | ult.
j.p.p. | 織成功 | tsuh zung-kóng, completely woven, | ult.
j.s.j. | 搨顔色 | t’ah gnan suh, paint on colours, | pen.
j.j.p. | 角落頭 | koh-loh deu, corner, | ult.

The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. | Accent.
p.j. | 天色 | t’íen suh, weather, | pen.
| 分別 | fun pih, difference, | „
s.j. | 手筆 | seu pih, hand-writing, | ult.
| 寶塔 | pau t’ah, pagoda, | „
k.j. | 算法 | sûn fah, method of calculation, | „
j.j. | 吃粥 | k’íuk tsóh, eat rice water, | „
p.j. | 頭髮 | teu fah, hair, | pen.
| 沉殺 | dzun sah, be drowned, | „
s.j. | 顔色 | gnan suh, colour, | „
| 五十 | ng seh,[1] fifty, | „
k.j. | 二十 | ní seh twenty, | „
| 吝嗇 | ling sih parsimonious, | „
j.j. | 沒殺 | meh sah be drowned, | ult.
| 立刻 | lih k’uh immediately, | „
p.p.j. | 骷髏骨 | kú leu kweh scull, | „
p.p.j. | 龍華塔 | lúng hwó t’ah Lúng-hwá pagoda, | „

In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked k, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

[1] The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in conversation is irregular.

31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.j.p. | 推出來 | t’é t’seh-lé, investigate, | ult.
s.j.p. | 保國家 | pau kók-kiá, defend one’s country, | „
k.j.j. | 背脊骨 | pé-tsih kweh, back-bone, | „
j.j.p. | 脚節頭 | kiák tsih-deu, toes, | „
p.j.k. | 跑得動 | pau tuh-dóng, able to walk, | ant.
k.j.s. | 話得好 | wó tuh-hau, well spoken, | „
j.j.p. | 額角頭 | ngák koh-deu, forehead, | ult.

The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.

Tones. |
p.p.s.s. | 清清爽爽 | ts’ing-ts’ing song-song, distinct,
p.k.j.k. | 忠孝節義 | tsóng-hiau tsih ní, fidelity, filial piety, chastity and uprightness,
j.k.j.k | 各到落處 | kok-tau-lok-ts’û, everywhere,
s.s.p.p. | 喜喜歡歡 | h’í-h’í hwén-hwén, glad,
k.k.k.k. | 正正派派 | tsung-tsung p’á-p’á, good conduct,
j.j.j.j. | 瞎七瞎八 | hah-t’sih hah-pah, all in confusion,
j.j.j.s. | 七曲八裊 | ts’ih-k’ióh pah-niau, winding about,
p.j.s.s.s. | 金木水火土 | kiun mók sûi hú t’ú, metal, wood, water, fire and earth,
k.k.j.k.s. | 看過歇個者 | k’ön-kú-h’ih-k’ú-tsé, have seen it,
p.p.j.j.j. | 青黃赤黑白 | t’sing wong t’suh huh pah, blue, yellow, red, black, and white
p.p.p.j.p. | 東西南北中 | tung sí nén póh tsóng, east, west, south, north and middle,
p.k.j.s.s. | 聽過歇拉者 | t’ing-kú-h’ih-lá-tsé, I have heard it,

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé, they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words acceptableness, peremptorily, necessarily, may be compared with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the first and third.

In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on 拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc. more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be made on the upper tones.

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.

II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones, when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.

IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that position, shortened.

VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G, D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in Art. 56.

Lower first tone. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the city of Sháng-hái, this tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly together.

Ex. 篷 póng, sail; 龍 lóng, dragon; 門 mun, door.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p. | 唐詩 | tóng sz’, poetry of Táng dynasty, | pen.
| 文章 | vun tsáng, essays composed by rule, | „
p.s. | 牙齒 | ngá ts’z, teeth, | „
| 常久 | dzáng kieu, long time, | „
p.k. | 憑據 | píng kü, evidence, | ult.
| 同姓 | tóng síng, of the same name, | „
p.j. | 頭髮 | teu fah, hair, | „
p.p. | 停船 | ting zén, stop a boat, | „
p.p. | 窮人 | kióng niun, poor man, | pen.
p.s. | 文禮 | vun lí, elegance in style, | „
| 騎馬 | kí mó, to ride, | ult.
p.k. | 和尙 | u zong, priest, | „
| 强盜 | kiáng dau, robber, | „
p.j. | 題目 | tí móh, a theme, | pen.
| 牛肉 | nieu nióh, beef, | „

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a low key.

Obs. ii. Where we have written t, k, p, the corresponding soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed, where this method does not fully represent the true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, kióng, kiáng, and others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants; keeping the letter k, it will be enough to inform the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p.p. | 黃昏星 | wong-hwun sing, evening star, | ult.
p.s.p. | 神主牌 | zun-tsû bá, ancestral table, | „
p.k.p. | 前世寃 | dzíen-sz’ yön, enemy of a former life, | „
p.p.j. | 磨刀石 | mu tau záh, grinding hone, | „
p.p.j. | 如來佛 | zû-lé veh, title of Buddha, | „
p.s.j. | 前兩日 | zíen liáng-nyih, two days ago, | ant.
p.k.p. | 堂弟兄 | dong tí-hiúng, cousin on father’s side, | „
p.j.p. | 擡勿來 | dé veh-lé, cannot carry it, | ult.

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p. | 京城 | kiung zung, metropolis, | ult.
| 功勞 | kúng lau, merit, | „
s.p. | 賞頭 | song deu, reward, | „
k.p. | 進城 | tsing dzung, enter the city, | „
| 性情 | sing dzing, disposition, | „
j.p. | 北門 | póh mun, north gate, | „
p.p. | 城頭 | dzung deu, city wall, | „
| 衙門 | ngá mun, mandarin’s office, | „
s.p. | 老爺 | lau yá, a title of respect, | „
k.p. | 養牛 | yáng nieu, keep buffaloes, | „
k.p. | 樹皮 | zû bí, bark of trees, | ult.
j.p. | 月牙 | niöh ngá, moon’s horns, | „
| 木頭 | móh deu, wood, | „
j.p.p. | 黑心人 | huh-sing niun, black-hearted man, | ant.
k.k.p. | 蓋地皮 | ké tí-bí, possess land, | ult.
k.p.p. | 算希奇 | sûn hí-gí, regard as remarkable, | „
j.p.p. | 木頭人 | móh-deu niun, wooden image, | ant.
k.j.p. | 舊木頭 | kieu móh-deu, old wood, | ult.

Obs. In the groups not marked p, p, and p, p, the last word changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the remaining instances it preserves its even character. The way is prepared for reciprocal changes between the upper and lower series, by the initial consonants being different. The alphabetical distinction prevents the confusion, that would arise from this intermingling of sounds.

38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.p.s. | 新房子 | sing vong-tsz, a new house, | pen.
s.p.p | 主人家 | tsû niun-ká, master of family, | ult.
k.p.p. | 做人家 | tsú niun ká, to be economical, | „
k.p.p. | 要銅錢 | yau dóng-dien, he wants money, | ant.
s.p.p. | 老人家 | lau niun-ká, an old man, | ult.
s.p.p. | 洞庭山 | tóng-ding san, island in the Great Lake, | „
j.p.k. | 十王殿 | seh-wong dien, temple of the ten kings. | „

Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in s, p, p, the penultimate in these examples is usually raised to the upper falling tone.

39. Lower second tone. This tone properly a low protracted tone rising at its close, contains in it a number of words whose pronunciation is not fixed. These words, sometimes counted in this tone, and at other times in the next in order, are in other parts of China in the third tone. It will be better to consider them under the heading to which they belong in other dialects, and present here such examples as are free from this uncertainty in tone.

Ex. 有 yeu, have; 五 ng, five; 里 lí, Chinese mile.

40. Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. | Accent.
s.p. | 眼睛 | ngan tsing, eyes, | ult.
| 老君 | lau kiün, founder of Taúism, | „
s.s. | 冷水 | láng sz, cold water, | pen.
| 鈕子 | nieu tsz, button, | „
s.k. | 理性 | lí sing, reason, | ult.
| 買處 | má ts’û, means of buying, | „
s.j. | 免脫 | míen t’eh, forgive, | „
s.p. | 領頭 | ling deu, neckband, | „
| 女人 | nü niun, woman, | „
s.s. | 永遠 | yúng yön, very long time, | „
s.k. | 引誘 | yun yeu‘, to tempt, | „
| 領路 | ling lú, lead the way, | „
s.j. | 擄掠 | lú liáh, rob, | „

Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural character throughout. No initial letters occur but l, m, ng, n, r, and the vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants that were originally in this tone, are in course of transition to the lower third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the second tone.

Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of s.p. and s.s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the quick falling tone.

Obs. iii. This tone is difficult to describe as distinct from the preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the former deviates slightly, after beginning even; the latter begins low and ascends through its whole time. The first is in its general character even, but when compared with the pure monotone in the Amoy dialect, to which it is most nearly allied, there is a difference perceptible that needs to be specified. It is heard we believe with this peculiarity when pronounced alone, and when standing last in a binary combination, if it does not then change to the upper first tone. When first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that the first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first lower. In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true native drawl, the same may be noticed.

Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the second tone when alone, except when enunciated in a high key. When last in order it often rises to the upper second tone, and is then heard even.

For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of words in the lower tones are here appended:—

良, 兩, 亮, liáng, in the tones | p.s.k.
埋, 買, 賣, má, | „
泥, 你, 義, ní, | „
人, 忍, 認, niun, (r. zun), | „
油, 有, 佑, yeu, | „
題, 弟, 地, dí, | „
隨, 罪, 睿, zûe, | „

The last two words here marked as in the second tone will be shewn immediately to be so for this district.

41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
s.p.j. | 冷天色 | láng t’íen-suh, cold weather, | ult.
s.s.s. | 耳𦖋管 | ní-tú kwén, ear cavity, | „
s.k.p. | 老太婆 | lau t’á bú, aged dame, | „
s.k.p. | 買進來 | má tsing-lé, to buy, | „
s.k.s. | 武藝子 | vú-ní tsz, capacity for an art or business, | pen.
s.k.p. | 領事官 | ling-zz kwén, foreign consul, | ult.

42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or three words.

Tones. | Accent.
p.s. | 杴米 | k’íen mí, grind rice, | ult.
s.s. | 小雨 | siau ü, small rain, | „
k.s. | 囥籠 | k’ong lóng, to hide, | „
j.s. | 搭鈕 | tah nieu, an iron hook, | „
j.s. | 瞎眼 | hah ngan, blind, | ult.
p.s. | 情理 | dzing lí, reasonable, reason, | „
s.s. | 美女 | mé nü, beautiful woman, | „
k.s. | 盡禮 | dzing lí, do everything properly, | „
j.s. | 落雨 | loh ü, it rains, | „
| 着冷 | dzáh láng catch cold, | „
p.p.s. | 珍珠米 | tsun-tsû mí, Indian corn, | „
k.s.s. | 最苦惱 | tsûe k’ú nau, very miserable, | „
s.k.s. | 有道理 | yeu ’dau-lí, virtue, | ant.
j.j.s. | 勿勒裡 | veh leh-lí, not at home, | „
k.j.s. | 話勿理 | wó veh-lí, will not listen, | „

Obs. In 情理 and 盡禮 where a difference of accent might have been expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronunciation, entirely by means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last word rises and becomes even, i.e. passes into the upper second tone. Thus, 眼 ngan and 理 lí, become high and even.

43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.s.p. | 裝滿之 | tsong-mén tsz, having packed full, | ant.
k.s.k. | 看冷破 | k’ön láng p’ú, despise others, | pen.
p.s.s. | 情理點 | dzing-lí tíen, be more reasonable, | ant.
k.s.s. | 廿五里 | nian-ng lí, twenty-five Chinese miles. | „
j.s.k. | 洛眼淚 | loh ngan-lí, to weep, | ult.
s.s.k. | 五里路 | ng-lí lú, five Chinese miles, | „

44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is undecided, it may be first observed, that in the Tonic Dictionaries,[1] there is a large class of characters ranged under the second tone, not found there, either in the dialects of the Southern provinces, or in the Northern mandarin as registered by Prémare. These words have for their initials, only the sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b, d, g, with the vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, they are also found as in other parts of the empire in the third tone. It follows that they must have made the transition, since the Dictionary system was completed. The earliest works containing it, quoted in K’áng-hí, are said in the preface to have been written in the Liáng and Táng dynasties,[2] and must consequently be regarded as the tradition of at least a thousand years. While this change has taken place in the sound of a large class of very common words, through the greater part of China, it is curious to notice, that the older pronunciation still lingers in the colloquial practice of one part at least of central China.

Even if the inventors of the syllabic spelling confined themselves in the first instance to the usage of the Kiáng provinces, whik north and south of them a different pronunciation prevailed, still this change has taken place in the large cities of Cheh-kiáng and Kiáng-nán, which are now one with their neighbours. In our own dialect it has not yet been completed. After a sufficient time perhaps, this anomaly will have its term, and the boundaries of the tones be as sharply defined, as according to the laws of Chinese pronunciation they ought to be. There are moreover other illustrations that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular changes (to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher mark) occurring in the tones of China.

[1] The names of some of the most commonly used are 詩韻集成, 詩韻含英.

[2] 自說文以後, 字書善者, 於粱則玉篇, 於唐則廣韻. “From the Shwóh-wun downward, the best Dictionaries, were Yúh-p’ien in the Liáng, and Kwáng Yün in the Táng dynasties,” etc. Liáng A.D. 502 to 560, T’áng 617 to 917.

45. Lower third tone. The words that were primarily in this tone, are always heard with the quick rising pronunciation that properly belongs to it. It is like “the tone given to some words, when spoken ironically, or to the word ‘indeed!’ when used as an exclamation.” (Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.)

The words referred to in the last article, are placed here rather than in the second tone, because the other dialects are unanimous in doing so. In fact, however, they are in Sháng-hái usage more in the last tone than in this. The following words for example, when pronounced alone, have the long sound.

後 ’heu, | 上 ’záng, | 動 ’tóng, | 奉 ’vóng | 坐 ’zú, | 部 ’pú,
禍 ’hú, | 是 ’zz, | 弟 ’tí, | 父 ’vú, | 罪 dzûi, | 緩 ‘hwén,
倖 ’hyung, | 市 ’zz, | 道 ’tau, | 婦 ’vú, | 造 ’zau, | 罷 ’pó,
跪 ’kwè | 緒 ’dzü, | 蕩 ’tong, | 犯 ’van, | 重 ’dzóng, | 下 ’hiá,
近 ’kiun, | 善 ’zén, | | 丈 ’dzáng, | 在 ’dzé |

⁂ In the department of 嘉興 Ka-hiung, occupying the space between those of Háng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, these words are never in the third tone.

Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as belonging to the third tone in good editions of native works. E.e. 上꜄ 下꜄ 善꜄ 弟꜄ 後꜄ when they become verbs, change from the second to the third tone and are so marked. All the authorities are uniform in these matters; and the Dictionaries specify the tones by name, assigning the primary sense to the second tone, and the secondary sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.

46. These words though when standing isolated, they keep the old dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent changes in combination, that teachers who have not studied the subject, are at a loss to affix their true tone. In the following examples, these variations will be indicated as they occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and inverted comma on the right, for the second and third tones respectively.

Tones. | Accent.
k.k. | 坐坐 | ’zú zú‘, sit down, | ult.
s.k. | 請坐 | ts’ing ’zú, please sit down, | pen.
k.p. | 上頭 | ’zong deu, above, | ult.
p.k. | 皇上 | wong záng‘, emperor, | „
p.k. | 兄弟 | h’iúng dí‘, younger brother, | pen.
k.p. | 弟兄 | ’tí h’iúng, brothers, | ult.
k.k. | 味道 | mí dau‘, taste, | „
k.p. | 道臺 | ’tau dé, Revenue Commissioner, | „
k.p. | 道爺 | tau‘ yá, Revenue Commissioner, | „
k.k. | 罪過 | zé‘ kú, sin, | pen.
k.k. | 定罪 | ting ’dzûe, to condemn, | „
k.k. | 是個 | zz‘ kú, it is so, | „
j.k. | 勿是 | veh ’zz, it is not so, | ult.
j.k. | 活動 | weh ’dóng, living and moving, | „
k.p. | 動身 | ’tóng sun, move one’s-self, | „
s.k. | 寡婦 | kwó ’vú, a widow, | pen.
p.k. | 夫婦 | fu vú‘, husband and wife, | ult.
p.k. | 爲善 | wé ’zén, be virtuous, | pen.
k.k. | 善報 | ’zén pau, reward of virtue, | ult.
p.p.k.k. | 明知過犯 | ming tsz kú ’van, wilfully transgress, | „
k.j. | 犯法 | van‘ fah, break the law, | „
k.j.k. | 是勿是 | zz‘ veh zz, is it so or not? | „
k.j.k. | 並勿是 | ping veh zz, certainly not, | ant.
k.j. | 造屋 | ’zau óh, build a house, | ult.
k.p.s. | 造完者 | zau‘ wén tsé, finished building, | pen.
p.k.p.k. | 街市頭上 | ká ’zz deu long, in the streets, | ult.
k.p. | 市頭 | zz‘ deu, the street, | „
k.s.k. | 動咾動 | ’tóng lau dóng’, moving, | „
k.p.s. | 重來死 | dzóng‘ lé sí, very heavy, | „
k.k. | 看重 | k’ön ’dzóng, value highly, | „

Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly as many of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the usage all in all, the balance in cases of grouping is however, in favour of the quicker form. When alone the original tone is used almost exclusively. In reading there is about the same amount of variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone usually, but not exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of a combination to the longer tone.

47. In regard to the words that have always been in the lower third tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation as in any other tone.

Ex. 病 ping, disease; 話 wó, words, to speak; 大 tú, great.

The following are examples where this tone occurs in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. | Accent.
k.p. | 順風 | zun fóng, fair wind, | ult.
k.s. | 硯子 | níen tsz, ink stone, | pen.
k.k. | 定當 | ting tong, to fix, | ult.
k.j. | 外國 | ngá kóh, foreign state, | „
| 賣脫 | má teh, to sell off, | pen.
k.p. | 浪頭 | long deu, waves, | ult.
k.k. | 面貌 | míen mau, countenance, | „
k.k. | 謝謝 | siá ziá, I thank you, | „
k.j. | 念佛 | nian veh, chant Buddhist classics, | „

48. Examples of this tone in the antepenultimate of three.

Tones. | Accent.
k.p.p. | 硬心腸 | ngáng sing-dzáng, hard heart, | ult.
k.j.p. | 外國人 | ngá-koh niun, foreigner, | ant.
k.j.j. | 靜出出 | zing’ t‘seh t‘seh, quiet and empty, | „
k.p.j. | 硬如鐵 | ngáng zû t’ih, hard as iron, | ult.
k.p.s. | 大娘子 | tú niáng-tsz, wife, | pen.
k.j.j. | 飯粒屑 | vaun lih-sih, rice crumbs, | ant.

Obs. In the fourth example 子 being an enclitic, throws back the accent on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first word for a similar reason.

49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.k. | 街上 | ká long, in the streets, | pen.
| 多謝 | tú ziá, many thanks, | ult.
| 燒飯 | sau van, cook rice, | „
s.k. | 响亮 | h’iáng liáng, distinct in sound, | „
k.k. | 頂大 | ting dú, the greatest, | „
| 性命 | sing ming, life | „
j.k. | 看病 | k’ön bing, cure diseases, | „
p.k. | 國度 | kóh dú, a kingdom, | „
| 城外 | dzung ’ngá, outside the city wall, | „
s.k. | 隨便 | dzûe bien, as you please, | „
k.k. | 忍耐 | zun (or niun) né, patient, | „
| 話壊 | wó wá, speak ill of, | „
| 命令 | ming ling, a command, | „
j.k. | 月亮 | niöh liáng, moonlight, | „
s.s.k. | 果子樹 | kú tsz zû, fruit-bearing tree, | „
k.p.k. | 送羮飯 | sóng káng van, give away food, | pen.
j.s.k. | 瘧子病 | ngok (r. niák) tsz bing, fever and ague, | ult.

In the first example, long is always in the third tone. With 街上 ká long or 山上 san long, compare the English convict, wisdom, darkness. If the last words however, were not a mere enclitic, the comparison of pronunciation would fail, the accent being on the ultimate.

50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a group of three.

Tones. | Accent.
p.k.s. | 虛字眼 | h’ü-zz ngan, particles, | ant.
p.k.k. | 多謝儂 | tú ziá nóng, many thanks to you, | „
j.k.p. | 執定之 | tseh-ding tsz, obstinate, | „
p.k.p. | 城外頭 | dzung ngá-deu, outside the city, | ult.
s.k.k. | 兩樣個 | liáng-yáng kú, different, | pen.
k.k.k. | 念念看 | ’nian-nian k’ön, read a little aloud, | ant.
j.k.k | 勿碍啥 | veh-ngé sá, no matter, | pen.
p.k.p. | 嘸用人 | m-yúng niun, a useless man, | „

Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 5th, and 7th examples, the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.

51. Lower fourth tone. While this may be described as the lower short rising tone, and represented as short in quantity, it should be observed, that two long vowels, and several diphthongs are also admitted to it. The same is true of the short tone in the upper scale. These vowels and diphthongs are á, ó, (vide art. 6,), and iák, iah, iók, iöh, iuk, wák, wah, weh, wok.

Ex. 賊 zuk, thief; 挾 káh, to press; 掘 kiöh, to dig.

52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two words.

Tones. | Accent.
p.j. | 遮沒 | tsó meh, cover over, | ult.
s.j. | 土白 | t’ú báh, local dialect, | „
k.j. | 對敵 | dé dih, oppose enemies, | „
j.j. | 覺着 | koh (g) záh, become aware of, | pen.
| 出力 | t’seh lih (liuk), exert strength, | „
p.j. | 明白 | ming báh, clear, to understand, | ult.
| 重疊 | dzóng deh, tautology, | „
s.j. | 煖熱 | nön nyih, warm, | „
k.j. | 樹木 | zû móh, trees, | „
j.j. | 毒藥 | tóh (g) yáh, poison, | pen.

Obs. The long tones preserve their character before the short tone with great accuracy.

53. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. | Accent.
j.p. | 陌生 | mák sáng, strange, unknown, | ult.
j.p. | 畧些 | liák sü, a little, | ult.
j.s. | 落水 | lok sz, ebb tide, | „
j.k. | 孛相 | peh siáng, amusement, do nothing, | „
j.j. | 狭窄 | hah tsah, narrow-minded, | „
| 落脫 | lok t’eh, let fall, | pen.
j.p. | 別人 | pih niun, another man, | ult.
j.k. | 實在 | seh zé, truly, | „
j.j. | 目錄 | móh (g) lóh, table of contents, | „

Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects are three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in the other tones. Only the first of these is audible in Shánghái pronunciation. It occurs after á, ó, o, u. It is heard k before consonants of the upper series, particularly s, t; and g before those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be found exemplified in these two tables.

54. Examples of combinations of three.

Tones. | Accent.
j.p.s. | 學生子 | hok-sáng tsz, scholar, | pen.
j.j.k. | 勿一定 | veh ih ding, not necessarily, | ant.
j.k.p. | 落下來 | loh ’au-lé, fall down, | „
j.k.j. | 白話脫 | páh (g) wó-t’eh, speak to no purpose, | pen.
p.j.s. | 担勿起 | tan veh-k’í, cannot lift, | ant.
p.j.j. | 尋勿着 | dzing-veh-dzáh, cannot find, | ult.

Obs. The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an accent on the penultimate, as “convicted,” i.e. if 生 sáng be pronounced high. The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are so contracted in time as to sound more like words in short tones or enclitics, than in long tones. Should 生 fall to the lower first tone as it often does, the similarity would not hold.

55. Examples of larger groups in the lower tones.

- 男男女女 nén-nén ’nü-’nü, men and women

- 明明白白 ming-ming báh-báh, perfectly clear.

- 綾羅緞疋 ling-lú dön‘ p’ih, silks and satins.

- 風調雨順 fóng diau ’ü zun‘, wind and rain favourable.

- 日月星辰 zeh, yöh, sing, dzun, sun, moon, and stars.

- 仁義禮智 zun ní‘ ’lí tsz‘ sing‘, five cardinal virtues.

- 天地萬物 t’íen-dí‘ van‘-veh, heaven and earth and all things.

- 書裡有黃金 sû-’lí yeu-wong-kiun, there is gold in books.

- 家常白話 ká-dzáng páh-wó‘, household words

- 一眼大一眼 ih-’ngan-dú ih-’ngan, increase little by little.

- 謀衣謀食 meu-í meu-zuh, seek food and clothing.

56. General remarks on the lower tones.

I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in the upper or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and sibilants, the weak aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are in the lower tones. The other consonants with the strong aspirate are in the upper series. The following in the higher tones are exceptions.

Ex. 端, 短, 斷, 對, 答, 鬥, 躭, dön, ’dön, dön‘, dé‘, deh, deu‘, dén. 拉, 咯, lá, lóh. Yet 對 is heard té‘ in té‘ deu, adversary. This is caused by the accent falling on 頭 deu.

This furnishes the principle of the orthography adopted in the present work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is needless to employ distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower series. In the same way, the Fan t‘sieh or native syllabic spelling marks the series by the first word, and the particular tone by the sound. Thus 夫 fú is spelt with 方徒 fang dú. The initial F of the first word combined with the U final of the second, gives the sound fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K’áng-hí:—

- 正 is spelt with 章並 cháng ping‘, giving ching‘.

- 學 is spelt with 行酌 hing chóh, giving hióh.

The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low, and the second to which of the four tones it belongs. The pronunciation of the words borrowed for this purpose is supposed known.

II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed. Words sometimes heard g, d, b, are at other times heard k, t, p. The sounds g, d, b, occur after a word in combination; while k, t, p occur when no word precedes. To indicate that they are always low in pitch, they are printed in italics. V, z, come partially under the same rule. The rest dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin form at all, and are therefore spelt with d in this work. Another peculiarity is that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common in conversation; dz in reading.

III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or the weak aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the tone is uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at other times in the third. The liquids and vowels have not this peculiarity, and it only belongs to words that were originally in the second tone.

IV. The first tone, when last in a binary combination, rises to the upper first, except when preceded by the first tone, upper or lower. The initial consonant remains broad as in other cases.

V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series when standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the initial consonant is unaffected.

VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper tones. The last word of a combination being usually accented, affords the best opportunity for the discrimination of the tones.

57. Relation of Tones to Music. It is only when they are even, that a musical notation can fully and correctly represent the tones. For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not allowed in music, being destructive of harmony. The short and quick tones may however be described as staccato notes, and the violin may be made in passing from one note to another, to produce a continuous sound, which has been adduced in “The Chinese as they are,” to illustrate the deflections. In regard to time, so minutely subdivided in music, there do not appear be more than two classes of tones, the quick and the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the first five notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality, differences of elevation are usually not more than two for one dialect. The interval between the two series varies, it being greater for example, in some parts of the north of China, than in Kiáng-nán, where it is about half an octave.

58. Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages. So far as accent only means the distinction of loud and soft, there seems no analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pronounced as gently or sonorously as the speaker pleases, and loudness in this language also constitutes accent as distinct from tone. In the common accents of English conversation however, there is usually a difference in deflection, or as it is called by some writers, modulation. There is one tone (1) for assertion and determination, and another (2) for asking questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but in the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards respectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who read aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to the monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very distinctions of deflection and time that form the essence of the Chinese tones, and they are in daily use in our own language, as aids in expressing the feelings, as marks of emphasis, and as a means of relieving the voice by interchange. All that a foreigner has to do then in imitating the Chinese tones is to apply forms of utterance, to which he is already accustomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ them, and to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may be, as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with the vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly deflected tones, and those that are less familiar to us, the ancient Greeks would have had an advantage we do not possess. Their circumflex was made up of two tones, the acute and grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram. Sect. 9.) Every syllable had a tone, and the tones were placed on either long or short vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic and secular varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a similarity in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the work alluded to above, has pointed out to what tones the Greek accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so scanty on the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing certain can be said, when we attempt to detail their individual differences.

59. Examples are here annexed of words, which differing slightly, as in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each other if mispronounced.

- 鏡子 kiung‘ ’tsz, a mirror.

- 景致 ’kiung tsz‘, beautiful scenery.

- 浪頭 long‘ deu, waves.

- 榔頭 ’long deu, a hammer.

- 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here.

- 次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, regularity.

- 進教 tsing‘ kiau‘, enter a religious order.

- 請教 ’t’sing kiau‘, please inform me.

- 第頭 tí‘ deu, here.

- 剃頭 t’í‘ deu, shave.

- 最多 tsûe‘ tú, very many.

- 最大 tsûe‘ dú‘, very great.

- 第八 tí‘ pah, the eighth.

- 提拔 tí bah, to save.

- 大細 tú‘ sí‘, young son.

- 圖死 tú ’sí, wish to die.

- 勿通 veh t’óng, without reason or proof.

- 勿懂 veh ’tóng, not to understand.

- 勿同 veh dóng, not the same.

- 勿動 veh ’dóng, not moving.

Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the following contractions will in future be used. c. or s.c. Shánghái, colloquial form. m. Northern mandarin pronunciation, r. or s.r. Shánghái reading sound.

Section 4. Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds.

i. Initials.

60. In grammatical works on other languages, more or less is said on orthography, or orthography according as the alphabetical symbols are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chinese sounds are few, and regulated by laws which are easily laid down. A section therefore may properly be devoted to the romanized form of the sounds.

From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the Sanscrit system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have had an imperfect method of spelling words. The division of each sound into two parts, represented by two characters, the initial 毋 ’mú, and the final 韻 yün‘, constitutes the method.

The 字彙 zz‘ we‘, a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says 韻學自沈約始, 而釋神琪, 繼以等韻, 列爲三十六毋, 分爲平仄四聲, yün‘ yáh, zz‘ sun‘ yah ’sz, rh suh zun kóng, kí ’í ’tung yün‘, lih wé san seh lóh ’mú’, fun wé ping tsuh sz‘ sung. “The doctrine of arranging sounds by their rhymes began with Shin-yoh, and the Buddhist priests Shin-k’ong continued it, forming the rhymes into classes, and the initials into thirty six divisions, and placing them all under the four tones.”

61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose origin is thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries successively made, with apparently few variations. The thirty six initials referred to are contained in the following table:—

Native table of Initials.

k
見
kíen

k’
溪
k’í

g
郡
giun

ng
疑
ngi

t
端
twan

t’
透
t’eú

d
定
ding’

n
泥
ní

ch
知
ch

ch’
徹
ch’eh

j
澄
jing

ni
娘
niáng

p
幫
páng

p’
滂
p’áng

b
並
bing

m
明
ming

f
非
fí

f’
敷
f’ú

v
奉
vóng

w
微
ví

ts
精
tsing

ts’
淸
ts’ing

dz
從
dzóng

s
心
sin

z
邪
zié

tsh
照
tshaú

t’sh
穿
t’shuen

dj
狀
jwang

sh
審
shin

zh
禪
zhen

y
影
ying

h
曉
hiáu

y
喩
yü

h
匣
hiáh

l
來
lái

rh
日
jih

62. From the table it will be seen, that the division into an upper and lower series of initial consonants, the one embracing thin and clear sounds, with strong aspirates, the other including the broader consonants with the liquids and nasals, meets us not only in the study of the tones of a dialect as shewn in the former section, but in the accredited Dictionaries of the general language. This may be readily accounted for from the Kiáng provinces having been the chief seat of literature and political power, when the sounds of the language were first represented by double characters. Since the growth of the modern pronunciation there has been no attempt in any imperial work to form a new system of spelling.[1] The difference of the old system and the new will be understood if it be mentioned that 魚 ü, is spelt ngü, and that 外, 月, wái‘, yöh, are also in the column headed NG. More details on this subject will be found in the appendix. In the 五方元音 a small portable Dictionary on the alphabetic plan, and containing about 10,000 characters, the modern mandarin is followed in the initials and finals.

[1] In Káng-hí’s Dictionary many words in the lower first tone, formerly in the g, d, b, columns, have been transferred to the aspirate column, to be in conformity with northern pronunciation. Words in the short tone having k, t, p, as finals in the old system, have also been classed as terminating in vowels, for the same reason. These changes however are only found in Káng-hí’s second table, and the older classification, denoted by a circle round the examples placed where they formerly stood, is retained with the new.

63. In eight of the nine divisions above, the second initial is the strong aspirate either alone or following, the letters k, t, ch, p, f, ts and tsh. Of these the palatal ch, and sibilant tsh, are not needed in Shánghái pronunciation. Ts takes their place. In double initials the aspirate is between t and s, or t and sh.

- (ch) 知道 m. ch táú‘ s. tsz dau‘, to know.

- (tsh) 出來 m. ch’uh lái s. ts’eh lé, come out.

F‘ is the same as f. In other instances the aspirate is always preserved.

- 吹進吹出 t’sz tsing‘ t’sz t’séh, blow in and out.

- 看歇戲否 k’ön‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, have you seen the play?

- 開口 k’é ’k’eu, begin speaking.

In other cases, all these letters with and without aspirates, are the same with mandarin.

64. The third initial of the same eight divisions is wanting for Shánghái, only in the case of those headed ch and tsh. Their place is supplied by z. 形狀 yuug zong‘, visible form. Sh and zh in the seventh, are replaced by s and z.

- 一隻手 m. ih chih ’sheú s. ih tsáh ’seu, one hand.

- 時物 m. sh wúh s. zz veh, things in season.

- 扇子 m. shen‘ tsz s. sén‘ tsz, fan.

- 受領 m. sheú ling s. ’zeu ’ling, receive.

65. The h of mandarin is never heard before w or y in the lower tones:—

- 三魂六魄 san wung lóh p’áh, three mental, and six physical principles of human life.

- 無形無像 vú yung vú ziáng‘, invisible.

- 縣分꜄ yön‘ vun‘, what belongs to a district city.

- 效法別人 yiau‘ fah pih niun, imitate others.

In other examples among the lower tones, a slight aspirate is retained for the strong hissing sound of mandarin.

- 紅格紙頭, hóng kák ’tsz deu, red ruled paper.

- 閒書 han sû, light reading, 鞋子 há ’tsz, shoes.

This slight aspirate is lost in a word standing last in a combination.

- 那能修行 ’ná nung sieu ang? how shall I grow virtuous?

- 幾許闊狹 ’kí hau‘ kweh ah? how wide?

The English aspirate is between the two aspirates here distinguished, and is the same as that of Fúh-kien. We have no parallel in our pronunciation, to that hissing guttural sound, which in the mandarin provinces, belongs to all the five tones, and in Kiáng-nán to the upper series. Hence Morrison speaks of it as sh. Nor can the weak aspirate of the Kiáng-nán lower series, disappearing as it does so frequently, be regarded an equivalent to the English h.

66. With regard to the thick mutes and sibilants (g, d, b, v, z,) in the lower tones, it may be remarked generally, that foreigners in learning colloquial phrases, usually acquire the habit of pronouncing these consonants thin, when first in a combination, and broad, when some word precedes. This is so frequently true, that no further proof is needed of the pronunciation being variable.

- 第個 tí‘ kú‘, this.

- 次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, good order.

- 提拔 tí bah, rescue.

- 拔草 pah ’ts’au, to weed.

- 罷勿得 pá‘ veh tuh, indispensable.

- 勿罷拉 veh ’bá ’lá, more than that.

- 大同小異 tá‘ dóng ’siau í, differing but little

- 勿大好 veh dá‘ ’hau, not good.

For t and p, there is no difficulty in spelling as is here done, but k, s, f, are not so easily disposed of. The initial k or g is enunciated thickly before the vowels i and ü, though according to the system of the Dictionaries, the initial is the same in all cases. Some foreign students regard it as an aspirated consonant. Others write it dj or d. This anomaly of pronunciation, so difficult to express, does not occur before w, a and é. Limited thus to í and ü, it is thought preferable not to depart from the analogy, by inventing a new symbol for the few words in use that contain this unmanageable consonant.

- 插旗 t’sah gí, set up a flag.

- 顯轎 ’h’ien giau‘, mountain chair.

- 葵花 kwé hwó, sunflower.

- 求告 kieu kau‘, pray.

67. The lower f and s, are often heard v, z, even without a word preceding. Thus the actual pronunciation cannot be fairly represented by the law that answers for the other letters, and the only resource is to follow the natives in each case. This v, as well as that from w (m.) are pronounced w on the eastern side of the Hwáng-p’ú.

- 服事 foh zz‘, to serve.

- 牢實 lau zeh, honesty.

- 謝謝 siá‘ ziá‘, I thank you.

- 俗字眼 sóh zz‘ ngan, colloquial expressions.

- 尙書 zong‘ sû, the Historical Classic.

- 飯吃曼 van‘ k’iuh man‘, have you dined?

- 邪派 siá p’á‘, depraved customs.

- 罰咒 vah tseu‘, to swear.

- 實在 seh zé‘, truly.

68. The initials z and dz correspond, though somewhat irregularly, to the tabular initials z, zh, and j, dz, dj.

- 樹丫枝 zû‘ au tsz, branches of trees.

- 若使 zák sz‘, if.

- 炰茶 p’au‘ dzó make tea.

- 傳下來 dzén ’au lé, deliver down.

- 聚攏來 dzü‘ ’lóng lé, collect.

The d is often dropped, both, in reading and in the conversational form.

- 勿會寫字 veh wé‘ siá zz‘, cannot write (m. tsz‘).

- 擺渡船 ’pá dú‘ zén,[1] ferry-boat (m. ch’uen).

- 養蠶 yáng‘ zén, keep silkworms, (m. t‘sán).

The d is in some words retained in reading, when dropped in the colloquial form.

- 豺狼虎豹 zá (r. dzé) long ’hu pau‘, wolves and tigers.

- 稻柴 tau zá (c.) rice straw.

- 柴門 dzé (r.) mun, wooden gate.

- 造完 ’zau (r. dzau) wén, finish building.

[1] 船 The Dictionary pronunciation is 食川切 zhuen.

69. Words beginning with a vowel, belong to the thirty-first or thirty-third initials (y, y,) according as they are high or low in tone. In giving the romanized form, a more extended subdivision of the vowels must of necessity be adopted. In the present work, the initial vowel is italicized, when its word belongs to the lower series.

- 遠來死 ’yön lé ’sí, very far off.

- 寃枉 yön ’wong, falsely accuse.

Those words in the dialect that begin with n, m, v, while in northern mandarin they have only a vowel as their initial, are placed in the Dictionary system under those consonants, and they are all in the lower tones.

- 原是 ’niön ’zz, well then it is—

- 千山萬水 t’síen san van‘ ’ss, a long distance

- 一百萬 ih páh man‘, a million.

Words in the upper series beginning with a vowel, which in northern mandarin take the sound ng before them, never have it in the Shánghái dialect, nor in the Dictionary system. E.g.[1] 愛 ngái‘, 惡 ngóh,[2] are pronounced é‘ and oh.

- 愛伊樣物事 é‘ í yáng‘ meh zz‘, love that thing.

In the lower tones the initial ng is always preserved.

- 勿碍啥 veh ngé‘ sá‘, no matter.

- 一眼勿硬 ih ’ngan veh ngáng‘, not in the least hard.

- 咬牙切齒 ’ngaú ngá t’sih ’t’sz, grind teeth with rage.

- 我勿餓 ’ngú veh ngú‘ I am not hungry.

[1] 安 m. ngan, s. ön, 恩 ngun, s. un, 哀 ngái, s. é, 暗 ngán‘, s. én‘. The true sound as heard in the provinces where mandarin is spoken, is a guttural to which the English alphabet has no equivalent. NG is employed for want of a better symbol.

[2] In the mandarin Dictionary 五方元音, the initial ng is placed with u and a under w; i is placed with ǔ under y.

70. The remaining initials are ng, n, ni, m, v, l, and j. They belong with few exceptions to the lower tones.

Ng, I. Many words classed in the Dictionaries under this initial are pronounced differently in this dialect. Thus 堯 yau, 言 íen, have no initial consonant, 疑 ní, 爾 ’nü, 義 ní‘, belong to the tooth nasal (n), 午五魚 are read ü, ú, but spoken ng. Ng precedes a, e, o, ö, u, but not i, ü.

II. Other words as 月 niöh, 牛 nieu, 願 niön, belong more properly to the class headed ni, or the Spanish circumflexed n. The Sú-cheú dialect agrees better with the Dictionaries in this class of words, than that of Shánghái.

III. All the words in Morrison with the initial g belong to this class, except such as are in the upper tones. Such words as he writes aou, ae, yae, follow the same rule.

71. N, NI. These though distinguished in some alphabets as in Sanscrit and Spanish, may be for our purpose more usefully regarded as identical, the i being considered to belong to the final. Accordingly such words as 女 ’nü 你 ’né, 鈕 nieu, though placed under the palatal nasal ni in the native system, will be regarded as belonging to the tooth nasal n, and the remainder of the sound reckoned as the final. Even in the tables, these two consonants are in intentional juxtaposition. The consonants t, ch, to which they respectively belong are also naturally allied, as may be illustrated from our dialect, where ch becomes ts.

Many words written by Morrison yǔh, yin, yen, ying, yŏ, yu, yuen, yuĕ, take this initial, when they are in the lower tones. N, when thus prefixed, precedes no vowel but i, ü. The following are examples:—

玉 niók, | 硯 níen‘, | 獄 niók, | 源 niön,
銀 niun, | 騐 níen‘, | 語 ’nü, | 願 niön‘,
諺 níen‘, | 迎 niung, | 愚 nü, | 月 niöh, r. yöh.

72. M. V. The class headed m includes not only the mandarin words in m, but some that in mandarin begin with w. They are therefore placed together in the Dictionary system. Words thus transformed have v in reading as an intermediate sound, and often retain that form in the colloquial. If they are not words in very common use, they do not assume m as their initial. The following are examples:—

- 夫 mí and ví, c. ví, r.

- 萬 man‘ and van‘, c. van‘, r.

- 襪 mah, 蚊 mun, c. and r.

- 文, 武 vun, ’vú, c. and r.

Also 問忘網望味物 are spoken mun‘, &c., and read vun‘, etc. In early Chinese these words all began with b.

73. L. J. The former of these, as used in our dialect, agrees with the native system, and with the northern mandarin, and calls for no remark except that a very few words as before noted belong to the upper series. See Art. 56.

Under the initial j, are found all the Shánghái words in ni (c), and z (r), which are j, in Mandarin. E.g. 譆饒熱染日忍軟閏絨認撚 are spoken niáng, &c., and read záng, &c.

Thus,

- 人 niun, c. zun, r. jin, m. a man.

- 肉 nióh, c. zóh, r. júh, m. flesh.

Words that are semi-colloquial, or only used in combination retain z. E.g. 惹仁仍弱乳 are read and spoken ’zá, zun, etc.

Thus, 自然 zz‘ zén, c. and r. tsz‘ jen, m.

⁂ Words in z from sh, or s in mandarin, never change into ni. Thus, the natural separation between distinct classes of words is maintained, when their reading sounds are identical.

74. This class also includes r.h. The native tables make no difference between j and rh, and in some parts of China the initial j is in jih, sun, and some other words pronounced like r.

- 而且 rh ’t’siá, perhaps.

When thoroughly colloquialized, however, these words pass into ní, and must be placed under n or ng.

- 二 ní‘, c. rh‘ r. two.

- 兒子 ní ’tsz, or ng ’tsz, c. rh, r. son.

- 耳朶 ’ní ’tú, c. rh tó, r. ears.

ii. Finals.

75. The Shánghái finals are about 60 in number. According to the native system, the whole of a word except the initial letter and the aspirate if there be one, is included in the final. In the Dictionaries, the finals, which unlike the initials differ but slightly from modern mandarin pronunciation, are less numerous. The 字彙 tsz‘ hwei‘ has 44. The short tones which should be considered independent rhymes are counted with the corresponding long ones, and thus the number is diminished. The first table in K’áng-hí has sixteen, and the second, twelve. Under each are several subdivisions. Another small and very convenient Dictionary, the 五方元音 ’Wú fáng yuen yin, taking the five tone mandarin dialect for its guide both in initials and finals, adopts twenty of the one, and twelve of the other, and arranges them under five tones. In reducing them to this small number, some violence is done to the sounds. All words beginning with a vowel, or ng are arranged under w and y. In the finals, expedients are also employed to diminish the number of headings.

76. In the finals, the departures from the mandarin type are numerous, but they are according to system, and the knowledge of one variation is usually a key to the pronunciation of many tens of other words. The variations are usually the same for one long tone as for all.

In the following table which consists of words without a diphthong, the first column contains the final according to Shánghái pronunciation; the second, all the examples of it having different rhymes in mandarin; the third, the mandarin spelling; and the fourth, the Shánghái reading sound.

P. I. S. iv. table of finals.

Finals. | Shánghái colloquial. | Mandarin. | Shánghái reading sound.
á | 拉 lá (upper series) | lá |
| 拜 pá‘ | pái | pé
| 家 ká | kiá | kiá
| 解 ’ká | kiái, kiè | kiá
| 快 k’á | k‘wai | k‘wé
| 惹 ’zá | jé |
ah | 法 fah | fáh, fá |
| 瞎 hah | hiáh, hiá |
| 隔 kah | kuh, kó | kuh
ák | 百 pák | puh, ’pá | puh
| 若 zák | jóh, jó‘ |
| 目 mák, mok | múh, mú‘ | mok
| 石 zák | shǐh,[1] sh |
an | 但 tan‘ | tán |
| 簡 ’kan | kian | kíen
áng | 張 tsáng | cháng |
| 生 sáng | sung | sung
| 宕 táng‘ | táng | tong
| 行 háng, yung | hing, háng |
au | 好 ’hau | háú |
| 下 ’hau, hó | hiá‘ | yá
| 呌 kau‘ | kiáú | kiau
é | 海 ’hé | hái |
| 雷 lé | lei, lui |
| 衰 sé | shwái |
| 倍 pé‘ | pei |
eh | 雜 dzeh | tsáh,[2] tsá |
| 實 zeh | shih,[3] sh |
| 沒 meh | múh,[4] mú |
| 說 seh | shwoh | söh
| 活 weh | hwóh,[5] hwó |
én | 半 pén‘ | pwán |
| 船 zén | ch’uen |
| 善 ’zén | shen |
eu | 溝 keu | keú |
í | 理 ’lí | lí |
| 非 fí | fei |
| 去 k’í‘ | k’ü | k’ü
| 死 ’si | sz | sz
| 些 sí | sie |
ih | 立 lih | lih, lí‘ |
| 切 ts’ih | ts’ieh, t’sié |
| 雪 sih | siöh, ’sió |
| 恤 sih | siuh, sió |
ing | 循 dzing | siün |
| 心 sing | sin |
| 信 sing‘ | sing |
ó | 怕 p’ó‘ | p’á |
| 遮 tsó | ché | tsó
| 赦 só‘ | shé | sé
öh | 奪 töh | tóh,[6] tó |
ók | 獨 tóh | túh,[7] tú |
| 木 móh, mok | múh, mú |
| 國 kóh, kweh | kwóh,[8] kwó |
ok | 薄 pók, pok | póh,[9] pó |
| 樂 lok | lóh, ló‘ |
| 角 kok, kók | kióh, chió | kiák
ön | 端 dön (upper series) | twán |
| 岸 ngön‘ | ngán |
óng | 松 sóng, súng | sóng, súng |
ong | 喪 song | sáng |
| 雙 song | shwáng |
| 夢 mong | móng, múng | móng
| 紅 ’kong | kiáng | kiáng
ú | 所 ’sú | só |
| 大 tú‘ | tá | tá
| 古 ’kú | kú |
ü | 句 kü‘ | kü |
| 歸 kü | kwei | kwé
û (ü) | 主 ’tsû tsü | chú |
uk | 直 dzuk | chih,[10] ch |
ûe (üe) | 雖 sûe (ü) | súi |
un (ng) | 根 kun (g) | kun |
| 身 sun (g) | shin (un) |
| 尊 tsun (g) | tsün |
ûn | 杆 kûn | kán |
| 算 sûn‘ | swán |
óng (ú) | 龍 lóng (ú) | lóng (ú) |
ung | 亨 hung | hung |
| 門 mung (n) | mun |
m | 無 vú, m | wú | vú
ng | 恒 hng | hung |
rh | 而 rh | rh |
sz | 思 詩 sz | sz, sh and shí |
| 鼠 ’sz | shú | sû
| 水 ’sz | shúi | sûe
76. The intermediate vowel i forms the following finals:—
iá | 邪 siá | sié | sié
iah | 甲 kah | kiáh, kiá | kiah
iák | 畧 liah | lióh, liáú‘ |
ian | 念 nian‘ | nien |
iau | 教 kiau‘ | kiáu |
iáng | 强 ’k’iang | k’iáng |
ié | 且 ’t’siá | t’sié | t’síe
íen | 選 síen | siuen |
| 田 tíen | t’ien |
| 全 dzen | t’siuen | dzíen
ieu | 求 kieu | k‘ieú |
| 宿 sieu | süh |
iih | 熱 nyih | jeh | zeh
ióh | 曲 k’óh | k’iúh, ’k’ü |
iöh | 月 niöh | yueh | yöh
iön | 權 kiön | k’iuen |
ióng | 窮 kióng | k’iong (ú) |
| 官 kióng | kúng | kóng
iú | 靴 hiú | hiö |
iuk | 逆 niuk | nih |
iun (ng) | 勤 kiun (ng) | k’in |
iung (n) | 今 kiung (n) | kin |
| 京 kiung | king |
iúng | 兄 h’iúng | h’iung |
iün | 訓 h’iün‘ | h’iün |

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] When there are two modes of spelling in the column of mandarin pronunciation, the second is taken from the work 小氏音鑑 which contains the Peking pronunciation of words in the short tone, spelled according to the syllabic system. Those to which on asterisk is prefixed are all in the lower first tone.

77. The other intermediate vowels u, occurring only after k, g, forms the following finals:—

P. I. S. iv. table of finals.

Finals. | Shánghái colloquial. | Mandarin. | Shánghái reading sound.
uá | 乖 kwá | kwái | kwé
uah | 括 kwah | kwáh |
nan | 關 kwan | kwán |
wén | 官 kwén | kwán |
wó | 瓜 kwó | kwá |
wok | 槨 kwok | kwóh, ’kwó |
wong | 光 kwong | kwáng |
wun (ng) | 滾 kwun (ng) | kwun |

Obs. i. For óng and úng, Morrison writes úng; Prémare óng. It will be seen that in our dialect they are both in use. When a word is pronounced alone, or when last in order, ó is more common, while ú prefers the first place in combination; 松紅 Súng-kong, Súng-kiáng; 吳淞 Ng sóng, Wú-súng; 中國人 tsúng kóh niun, Chinaman; 勿拉當中 veh ’lá tong tsóng, not in the centre.

Obs. ii. Words in é from m. ái have two sounds. Some employ the Scotch ae in sae, nae, etc. nearly like e before r in the English words there, where. Others pronounce the English a in cake, same, i.e. in our orthography é. Ex. 來海 lé, ’hé, are constantly heard with both these sounds.

Obs. iii. Words in én, beyond 黃渡 Wong dú‘, and 朱家閣 Tsû ká koh, 25 and 30 miles to the west of Shánghái, change into ön.

Obs. iv. On án, wán. The second of these mandarin finals passes into én or ön. The former retains a for á. Ex. 滿洲 Mén tseu, Manchu; 五六萬 ’ng lóh man, 50,000 or 60,000.

78. If the old native tables of finals could be reduced to a fixed Roman orthography, our dialect would be found to bear more similarity to that pronunciation as its maternal stem, than to its northern relative the modern mandarin. The final k in the short tone was recognized, and many sub-divisions of a final into two or more branches agree with our usage; i.e. kwán into kwön and kwan. Some southern dialects preserve some parts and some others parts of this traditional pronunciation. The work before referred to, Lé‘ sh‘ yin kíen‘ says, in the 凡例 Fán lieh, Introductory Notes, 南音於剜彎, 官關, 般班, 分之甚細。 北或合面爲一, Nén yun ü wén wan, kwén kwan pén pan, fun tsz zun‘ sí‘. Poh wóh heh rh wé ih. “In the south (Kiáng-nán. etc.), the pronunciation of the words pén pan, etc. is carefully separated, while in the north, they combine in one (á) sound.”

Another instance there given, of difference between the north and south in the final, is in such words as 銀盈, 勤檠, 神繩, 林靈, 貧平, 金京, m. yin ying, k’in k’ing, shin shing, lin ling, p’in p’ing, kin king. These the author says, are carefully distinguished in the north, while in the south they are identical in sound.

The rule of Shánghái pronunciation is this. Those words that end in ng in mandarin keep it. Those words that end in un change n into ng, while such as terminate in un take n or ng indifferently. Thus the above examples are read niun (g) yung, kiun (g) kiung, zun (g) zung, ling ling, ping ping, kiun (g) kiung.

Both of this writer’s observations are exemplified in the table. It is there shewn how far precisely this coalescing and subdividing of rhymes extends. One rhyme in either of the dialects, may branch off in the other into four or even six independent finals.

79. The most curious fact deducible from the table is, the affinity of certain vowels for the terminating consonant k (g before words in the lower tones) found in the short tone; a peculiarity which disappears a little south-west of Shánghái, and is not noticed at Ningpo.

The principal forms of words in the short tone in mandarin, according to different systems of orthography in common use are as follow:—

Morrison & Medhurst | ă | ĕ | eĕ | eǐh ih | uĕ | ǐh | ǔh | ŏ
Prémare | ă | ĕ | iĕ | ĭ | uĕ | ĕ | ǔh | ŏ
Williams | áh | eh | ieh | ih | ueh | eh | uh | óh
This work | áh | eh | ieh | ih | iöh | uh | úh | óh

Most words in the short tone ending in k, are of the last three of these finals u, ú, ó. Of the others, those in ih if they take k often insert a short u. E.g. 力 is heard lik or liuk. Similarly when words in úh and óh do not take k, they change úh and óh into eh. Thus, 末 móh becomes meh, Many words in conformity with this law, change their places among the finals, and the collocation of a and e, with k is carefully avoided, while u, ú, ó, retain it with equal consistency.[1] It should be observed however, that the á of mandarin becomes a in the short tone, and the longer a is only used as the colloquialized form of u. E.g. 百 c. pák, r. puk. Thus in Shánghái usage, á, u, ó, o take k in the short tone, a, e, ö, admit m terminating consonant, while i remains common.

This law is much simpler than that of the Fúh-kien and other dialects of the south of China. But while in those dialects, there are found as in the dictionaries three terminating consonants, k, t, p, similar affinities to vowels are traceable. In Fúh-kien with the exception of á, which, all three share between them, k usually prefers one set of vowels, and t and p another.

The native rule in the southern dialects, that k, t, p, are merely the form assumed by the final letters ng, n, m, in the short tone, is inapplicable to dialects, so far north as this. In the native system of finals, this limitation is found indeed, but is not rigidly adhered to. Some words in t are placed under ng as well as n. Others in k occur under vowel finals. The cases of conformity however, are so much more numerous than the exceptions, that the rule is indubitable. Since here only k is in use, the modern seat of the old pronunciation of the dictionaries must lie in part farther south. It embraces indeed the seaboard provinces, from Shánghái to Canton with parts of Kiang-si and Hu-nan.

[1] Words in k frequently interchange. Uk and ák do so throughout, while ók, ok are often both in use for the same words.
Ex. 木行 moh hong or móh hong, a timber yard.

80. The letter n is also affected by the preceding vowel. After a, e, ö, û, it is almost unheard when no word follows, and though a well-defined consonant in the next word brings it into notice, it is still only audible as a slight nasal sound. The vowels i, o, refuse to be associated with it, and when u precedes, it only holds its position in common with ng. After ü it is as in mandarin.

81. Out of 63 finals, there are twenty that vary their sound in reading. In all these, there is an approach to the mandarin pronunciation, and they are therefore employed, by those born within the limits of the dialect, when they wish to make themselves intelligible to strangers. In such cases, they are usually under the delusive impression that it is mandarin they speak. Such is the advantage of the alphabetic system, with its all-versatile and exhaustive applicability, that a foreigner can pass from one dialect to another so far as sound is concerned, with much greater quickness than a native. The latter has no ready method of writing new sounds down, nor is he practised in the art of separating them into their alphabetical elements. No thing but a long residence in the region of another pronunciation, and some natural flexibility of organs, can give him a different set of tones, and a new arrangement of vowels and consonants. The sight of a character suggests to him the sound, that he learnt in his childhood, and having always regarded each, sound as a unity not separable into alphabetic parts, any variation is too confusing and difficult of appreciation to be readily adopted.

The total number of sounds in our dialect independent of tones, is about 570. Morrison counts those of mandarin at 411, The difference is due to the broad initials b, g, d, v, z.

82. Irregularities of Pronunciation. Words that do not conform in sound to the rules given in this section are few.

- 十五 só‘ ’ng, (for seh ng), fifteen.

- 錢 dzíen, r. is pronounced díen‘, c.

- 逐軸 dióh, r. They should be dzóh.

- 打 ’tá, to strike, in reading and colloquial is ’táng.[1]

- 那 r. ná, c. á in á lí, where.

- 所在 r. ’sú ’dzé, c. ’sû zé, a house.

[1] The sound tang is the older. The phonetic 丁 ting points to a final ng as having formerly existed,

To these may be added the tendency of the initial k to be pronounced, when standing before i, like t in the upper series, and like d or dj in the lower.

PART II.
ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Section 1. Native divisions.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, weh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 seh zz‘ ’ngan. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’ngan. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih wó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’ngan, or verbs which are 活字眼 weh zz‘ ’ngan. The usual sense of 活 is living, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed moving or transferable words, while substantive are said to be fixed or dead.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íen ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. | 高 kau, high. | 多 tú, many. | 大 tá‘, great.
| 低 tí, low. | 少 ’sau, few. | 小 ’siau, small.

2. Verbs 活虛字 weh h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. | 作 tsok, to do. | 傳 dzén, to deliver down.

3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:—

焉 íen,?

乎 ú,?

}

Interrogative and other
finals.

哉 tsé,? | 也 ’yé,.

此 ’t’sz, this.

所 ’sú, which.

}

Pronouns and the sign of
the possessive.

其 gí, he. | 之 tsz, of.

甚 zun‘, very.

可, ’k’ó, can.

}

Adverbs & auxiliary
verbs.

最 tsûe‘, „ | 爲 wé, be.

4. 空活虛字 k’óng weh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word weh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the copula, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed copulative. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

雖 sûe, although. | 如 zû, like. | } | Conjunctions.
但 tan‘, but. | 若 zák, as.
而 rh, further. | 乃 né, then.

非 fí it is not.

何 ú, what?

}

Negative and interrogative
adverbs.

不 peh, not. | 豈 ’k’í, how?

These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault; 能力 nung lih, strength; 生活 sáng wéh work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 páh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, Book of History, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial media of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

天 t’íen, heaven. | 月 niöh, moon. | 馬 ’mó, horse.
地 ti‘, earth. | 星 sing, stars. | 牛 nieu, ox.
人 niun, man. | 山 san, mountain. | 羊 yáng, sheep.
水 ’sz, water. | 海 ’hé, sea.
火 ’hú, fire. | 草 ’t’sau, grass.

Divisions of time.

春 t’sun, spring. | 日 nyih, day.
夏 ’hau, summer. | 月 niöh, month.
秋 t’sieu, autumn. | 歲 sûe‘, solar year.
冬 tóng, winter. | 夜 yá‘ night.

Meteorological terms.

風 fóng, wind. | 雷 lé, thunder. | 雨 ’ü, rain.

Numbers.

一 ih, one. | 六 lóh, six.
二 ní‘, two. | 七 t’sih, seven.
三 san, three. | 八 pah, eight.
四 sz‘, four. | 九 ’kieu, nine.
五 ’ng, five. | 十 zeh, ten.

Cardinal points.

東 tóng, east. | 南 nén, south.
西 si, west. | 北 póh, north.

Verbs.

定 ting‘, to fix. | 能 nung, can.
歸 kwé, return home. | 有 ’yeu, have.

Adjectives.

大 tá‘, great. | 希 hí, few.
遠 ’yön, distant. | 直 dzuk, straight.

Nouns.

罪 zûe, sin. | 禮 ’lí, ceremony.
門 mun; door. | 詩 sz, poetry.

Pronoun.

我 ’ngú, I.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

- 百姓 pák-sing‘, the people.

- 天下 t’íen-’au, the world.

- 正月 tsung‘-niöh, 1st month.

- 聰明 ts’óng-ming, intelligent.

- 上帝 záng‘-tí‘, God.

- 鳳凰 vóng wong‘ phœnix.

- 法度 fah-dú‘, mode of government.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

- 鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, birds.

- 帝 as in 皇帝 wong-tí‘, emperor.

- 神 as in 神明 zun-ming, the inferior divinities.

- 位 as in 地位 tí‘-wé‘, station.

- 事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, matter.

- 可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, may, can.

- 日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, the sun.

- 聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, intelligence.

- 說 as in 說書 söh-sû, relate stories.

91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

Relation to colloquial Mandarin. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 páng yeu‘, friend; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, self; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

樹 zû‘, tree. | 會 wé‘, am able to.
脚 kiáh, roof. | 吃 k’iuh, eat.
船 zén boat. | 呌 kiau‘, call a person.
撇 p’ih, stroke to the left. | 攏 ’lóng, bring together.
埃 á, take in order. | 惹 ’zá, provoke.
敲 k’au, knock. | 揪 t’sieu, restrain by holding.
撑 t’sáng, pole a boat. | 瞧 dziau, to look.
抄 t’sau, to copy. | 抖 ’teu, shiver.
喝 höh, call to. | 拖 t’ú, to pull.
爬 pó, to scratch. | 勦 tsiau‘, destroy

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

甚麽 m. shen‘ ’mó? what? | 那裡 m. ’ná ’li? where?
什麽 shih ’mó? what? | 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, this.
怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? how? | 他 t’á, he.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’a ’lí? where? So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

- 人家 niun ká, a man.

- 低頭 tí deu, lower the head.

- 開船 k’é zén, unmoor a boat.

- 時辰 zz zun, an hour, i.e. twelfth of a day.

- 招架 tsau ká‘, shield one’s-self.

- (c) 幫助 pong dzú‘, to assist.

- 容易 yúng í‘, easy.

- 船隻 (c) zen tsáh, boats; or a boat.

- 𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, throw away life.

- 看見 k’ön‘ kíen‘, to see.

- 踅手 zeh ’seu, maimed hand.

- 利害 lí é‘, dangerous, severe.

- (c) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, minutely.

- 解說 ’ká seh, explanation.

- 撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, push down.

- 敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, revere.

- 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, very good.

- 認得 niun‘ tuh, know a person.

- 唱喏 (c) t’song‘ ’zó, join one’s hands in respect.

- 倒竪 ’tau ’zû, set up on end.

The characters marked (c) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 Dream of the Red Chamber, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the Three Kingdoms. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for said, 曰 yöh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

那哼 ’ná háng? how? | 弗是 veh zz‘, it is not
自家 zz‘ ká, self. | 多許 tú hau‘, very many.
弟个 veh kú‘, not so. | 慢點 man‘ ’tíen, little slower.
做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? what do you? | 個頭 kú‘ deu, there.
個歇 kú‘ h’ih, at preset. | 個个 kú‘ kú‘, that.

- 哉 tsé (m. 了), sign of completion.

- 子 ’tsz (m. 了), sign of past participle.

- 个 kú‘ (m. 的), sign of possessive.

- 勿 veh (m. 不), simple negative.

- 全 dsíen (m. 都), all.

- 啥 sá‘ (m. 甚麽)? what?

- 好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, well, in a good manner.

- 想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, having thought of.

- 拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, at home.

- 是介 zz‘ ké‘ (s. seh ké nung), thus.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

This, m. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. | s. 第个 tí‘ kú‘.
He, m. 他 t’á. | s. 伊 í.
How? m. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?

Section 3. On the Substantive.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íen dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’li, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 van ’yeu yiung ’yeu tseh ’yeu k’i ’yeu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’yeu tön ’k’ó ’tsz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia wé‘ tsz seh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 seh zé ’tsz zz‘.

Combined and uncombined substantives. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. c).

飯 van‘, cooked rice. | 貓 mau‘, cat. | 狗 ’keu, dog.
雲 yün, clouds. | 墨 muh, ink. | 藥 yáh, medicine.
理 ’lí, moral law. | 煤 mé, coal. | 雪 sih, snow.

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

- 米糴好否 ’mi tih ’hau ’vá? have you brought rice?

- 人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih yáng‘ kú, I am a man as you.

- 袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, let the sleeve be large.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

米價 ’mí ká‘, price of rice. | 大人 tú‘ niun, father.

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í dress, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

衣裳 í zong, clothes. | 布衣 pú‘ í, cotton clothes.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

- 猪驢 tsz lú, a pig.

- 過房 ku‘ vong, adopted child.

- 江猪 kong tsz, the river pig (a fish).

- 禮物 ’lí veh, presents.

- 日食 nyih zuh, eclipse of the sun.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

- 着衣裳 tsáh í zong, put on clothes.

- 殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, pork butcher.

- 日頭落山 nyih deu lok san, sun is setting.

- 租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, let a house.

- 送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, offer presents.

Combination. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

柏樹 páh zû‘, cypress. | 茶壺 dzó ú, teapot.
松樹 sóng zû‘, pine. | 鐵蛋 t’ih dan‘, iron bullet.
酒壺 tsieu ú, wine chalice. | 雞蛋 kí dan‘, hen’s egg.

- 牡丹花 mau‘-tan‘ hwó, moutan pœny.

- 孛相船 peh-siáng‘ zén pleasure boat.

- 堦沿石 ká-íen záh, first door-step.

- 磨刀石 mú tau záh, grind-stone.

- 紅緯帽子 hóng wé‘ mau‘-’tsz, red tasselled hat.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

- 手心 ’seu sing, palm of the hand.

- 手套 ’seu t’au‘, gloves.

- 樹根 zû‘ kun, root of a tree.

- 樹葉 zû‘ ih, leaves of a tree.

- 頭髮 teu fah, hair.

- 首飾 ’seu seh, head ornaments.

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native usage.

親眷 t’sing kiön‘, relations. | 信息 sing‘ sih, letters and news.
街路 ká lu‘ the road. | 貨色 hú‘ suh, goods.
榮光 yóng kwong, glory. | 財帛 dzé báh, money and silk.

- 福祿壽 fóh loh zeu‘, happiness, affluence and age.

- 酒色財氣 ’tsieu suh dzé k’í‘ wine, lust, riches and anger.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used, may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus 眷 kiön‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations. As a verb to compassionate its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí (elder sister) mé‘ (younger do.) sisters; 禽獸 kiun (birds), seu‘ (beasts), animals; 天地 t’íen dí‘, heaven and earth; 夫婦 fú vú‘, husband and wife; 山水人物 san ’sz niun veh, mountains, water, men and things: 銅錢銀子 tóng díen niung ’tsz, copper and silver money.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined ad libitum. They are old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China, even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no district brought into question by these differences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 teu, are the most common.

鴿子 keh ’tsz, a pigeon. | 席子 sih ’tsz, matting.
刮法子 kwah fah ’tsz, machinery.
罐頭 kwén‘ deu, saucepan. | 流頭 lieu deu, pulley.
甎頭 tsén deu, bricks. | 話頭 wó‘ deu, words.
骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, an axle.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and teu give individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper meaning, son, head, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 day is distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 the sun by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.

- 粒屑 lih sih, or sih alone, expresses small fragments of.

- 局頭 kióh deu, place of carrying on trade.

- 橋頭 kiau deu, landing place of a bridge.

- 碼頭 ’mó deu, „ „ of a ferry.

- 賭場 ’tu dzáng, place of gaming.

- 戲場 h’í dzáng, place of seeing plays.

- 牛場 nieu dzáng, place of tethering cattle.

- 柴粒屑 zá lih sih, small fragments of firewood.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 teu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

- 有辦頭 ’yeu pan‘ deu, there is a way of doing it.

- 唔坐處 m ’zú t’sû‘, no place to sit down.

- 有啥做法 ’yeu sá‘ t’sû‘ fah? is there a way of doing it?

- 唔啥好處 m sá‘ ’hau t’sû‘, no benefit in it.

- 那能好法 ’ná nung ’hau fah? how is it good?

- 長頭 dzáng deu, overplus.

- 剩頭, 餘頭 dzung‘ deu, û deu, remainder.

- 牢實頭 lau zeh deu, a simple, honest person.

- 苦惱子 ’k’u ’nau ’tsz, one very poor and wretched.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, A piece of is expressed by k’wé. A bar of by tiau.

冰塊 ping k’wé‘, piece of ice. | 鋼條 kong diau, steel spring.
船隻 zén tsáh, boats. | 人頭 niun deu, a man.
書本 sû ’pun, books. | 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, sheet of paper.

112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká, 人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and professions.

- 脚夫 kiák fú, a porter.

- 兇手 h’iúng ’seu, murderer.

- 本作, 木匠 mok tsoh, or móh ziáng‘, carpenter.

- 水作, 泥水匠 ’sz tsoh, or ní ’sz ziáng‘, bricklayer.

- 鞋匠司務 há ziáng‘ sz‘ vú‘, shoemaker.

- 裁縫司務 dzé vóng sz‘ vú‘, tailor.

- 店家 tién ká, shop-keeper.

- 船家 zén ká, boatman.

- 捉魚人 tsoh ng niun. fisherman.

- 拾柴人 sih zá niun, wood gatherer.

- 東家 tóng (east) ká, master (who places his guests on the right.)

- 禮生 ’lí sáng, director of rites.

- 先生 síen sáng, teacher.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

- 屏風 ping (to screen) fóng (the wind), a screen.

- 扶手 vú (to support) ’seu (the hand), hand-rail.

- 吃局 k’iuh (eat) gióh (food), food.

- 小姐 ’siau tsiá, young lady.

- 古董 ’kú (old) ’tóng, curiosities.

- 夥計 ’hú (combine) kí‘ (plans), partner in business.

- 辮子 píen‘ (to plait) ’tsz, the queue.

- 黃狼 wong (yellow) long (wolf), weasel.

- 抽㔸 t’seu (to draw out) t’í‘ (drawer), a drawer.

- 生梨 sáng (raw) lí (pears), pears.

- 花紅 hwó (flower) óng (red), small apples.

- 金箔 kíun boh, (thin) gold-leaf.

- 相好 siáng (mutual) hau (good) intimate friends.

114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, elder brother, we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (r. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá, father. When applied to the names of children and others in humble life, either word in the proper name may annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect, and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of Shánghái are here appended.

- 鴉片 á p’íen‘, opium.

- 袈裟 ká só, Buddhist priest’s robe. Sanscrit Kashaya.

- 記 (c) 翼 (c) kí‘ lih, wings. m. ’ch pang rh.

- 尾杷 (c) ní‘ pó, tail. (尾) r. ’vi) m. i pa.

- 小囝 (c) ’siau nön, little boy.

- 鱟 (c) heu‘, the king-crab, rainbow. m. kang‘, r. 虹 hung.

- 簷凙 (c) yien doh, icicles. m. ping chiu‘ ’tsz.

- 羊乳 (c) yáng ’ná, goat’s milk.

- 筷 (c) k’wan, chopsticks. m. k’wai tsz.

- 烟囪 (c) íen t’sóng, chimney. m. yen ’t’ung.

- 爺娘 yá niáng, father and mother. m. tie niang.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified, is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses an agent.

- 吃糧箇 k’iuh liáng kú, (living on imperial rice), soldiers.

- 撐船箇 t’sáng zén kú‘, those who work boats.

- 管賬個 ’kwén tsáng‘-kú‘, account-keeper.

- 賣花個 má‘ hwó kú‘, flower-seller.

- 擺渡個 ’pá dú‘ kú‘, ferryman.

Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.

Repetition. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the following examples.

- 嘵一星星 ’nau ih sing sing, look! there is a star.

- 要一點點 yau‘ ih ’tíen ’tíen, I want a very little.

118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in opposition.

- 暗洞洞 én‘ dóng dóng, a dark place.

- 亮晃晃 liáng ’kwong ’kwong, a glimmer of light.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in αὐτάδελφος and αὐτόχειρ the simple root aut precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel o. In the Latin word respublica, reipublicæ we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, to sow, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz, seed, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—

一囘 ih wé‘, one time. | 囘來 wé lé, come back.
磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, a mill. | 磨麥 mú máh, grind wheat.
牽繩 k’íen‘ zung, towing-rope, | 牽船 k’íen zén, tow a boat.
鐵釘 t’ih ting, iron nail. | 釘牢 ting‘ lau, nail fast.
應該 yung ké, ought. | 應許 yung‘ ’hü, a promise.
想帮 siáng pong, to assist. | 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, chief mandn.

Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái k’u shing.

Gender. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement requires the words descriptive of sex (男 nén, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 yióng) to precede.

- 雄鷄雌鷄 yióng-kí t‘sz-kí, a cock and hen.

- 一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh yióng sz-tsz, a male lion.[1]

- 男人 nén niun, husband.

- 女囝 ’nü nön, a girl.

[1] In the books yóng, t’sz, are restricted to birds, and 牝 ping‘ and 牡 meu‘ to animals. In the colloquial of this part of China, the pair of words above are used in all cases.

123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family relationship are the following:—

爹爹 tiá tiá, father. | 姊夫 tsí fú, brother-in-law.
阿媽 ah ’má, mother. | 孫女 sun ’nü, grand daughter.
阿奶 ah ’ná, grandmother. | 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, sister’s son.
伯伯 páh páh, eldest uncle. | 女壻 ’nü sih, son-in-law.
爺叔 yá sóh, younger do. | 姑媽 kú mó, husband’s sister.
娘舅 niáng gieu‘, mother’s brother. | 姑娘 kú niáng, father’s sister.
丈人 dzáng‘ niun, father-in-law. | 阿姨 ah í, wife’s sister.
丈姆 dzáng‘ m, mother-in-law. | 阿嫂 ah sau, brother’s wife.
媳婦 sing vú, daughter-in-law. | 阿姪 ah dzeh, brother’s son.
阿姊 ah tsí, elder sister. | 外公 ngá‘ kóng, mother’s father.
妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,younger do. | 外婆 ngá bú, mother’s mother.

Number. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and some after their words. Tsóng‘, tú hau‘ ’hau ’kí, and tá precede their noun. Dzén, t’óh, invariably follow their words.

125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.

- 衆百姓 tsóng‘ pák sing‘, all the people.

- 衆位阿 tsóng‘ wé‘ á, all you persons.

126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe a great number or several. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.

- 多許物事 tú hau‘ meh zz‘, a great many things.

- 物事有多許拉 meh zz‘ ’yeu tú hau‘ lá, there are very many things.

- 好幾个人 ’hau ’kí kú‘ niun, a good many men.

- 人有好幾个 niun ’yeu ’hau ’kí ku‘, there are several men.

127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded to. The word tu, many, retains its old sound ta for this use.

- 買之大斤者 ’má tsz tá kiun ’tsé, have bought several catties.

- 多囘 tá wé‘, several times.

- 多個國度 tá kú‘ kóh dú‘, or tá kóh, several kingdoms.

- 多句說話 tá kü‘ seh wó‘, many sentences.

128. The words 全, 禿 dzén, t’óh foil following their substantives, usually from the first word in the concluding member of the proposition.

- 米咾肉禿有 ’mí lau niók t’óh yeu, there are both rice and meat.

- 人全拉看戲 niun dzén ’lá k’ön‘ hí‘, they are all looking at the play.

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.

- 男女禿有 nén ’nü t’oh ’yeu, the men and women are all there.

- 官府全好 kwén ’fú dzén ’hau, the mandarins are all good.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.

- 人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, the men are all come.

- 國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, nations all at peace.

- 世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, age after age.

Case. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It corresponds to 的 tih, m. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.

- 伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, his voice.

- 花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, the buds of flowers.

- 人个面孔 niun kú‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, the human voice.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, flower buds. Here no transposition is necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

- 我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, I tell you.

- 送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, give me a book.

- 勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, do not rail at people.

- 告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, I have told him.

132. Only the verb 話 wó‘, to say, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

- 吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ wó‘, I tell you.

- 忒伊話末者 t’eh í wó‘ meh ’tsé, tell him.

- 對伊話拉者 té‘ í wó‘ ’lá ’tse, have told him.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English say requires to after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as dico vobis.

133. The sign of the dative in da mihi, and give it to me is omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.

- 撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, give me one.

- 撥飯拉我 peh van ’lá ’ngú, give me rice.

- 撥飯我吃 peh van‘ ’ngú k’iuh, ditto.

- 撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, give it to me.

- 撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, have given it him.

Obs. i. In English to is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. To a place is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

- 到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, gone to Sú-cheú.

- 幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, when did you come to Shánghái?

- 到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? what do you come to do?

135. Motion from or by (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 yeu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

- 打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ ú dong lé? whence do you come?

- 打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píen ’tseu, go that way.

- 從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, from hence home.

136. The sense of for, instead of is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and wé‘, are all in use.

- 忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, go and buy for me.

- 爲之我咾 wé‘ tsz ’ngú lau— on my account—.

- 替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng weh, do work instead of you.

137. In and at (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (m. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

- 勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, not at home.

- 勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, not at Shánghái.

- 勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, at home or not?

- 勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, not at home.

- 嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, mere words.

- 心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, in the mind.

138. With, of (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, tan (also nan west of Shánghái), or nó, to bring, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (m. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

- 担刀來割 tan tau lé kweh (köh), cut it with a knife.

- 錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, made of tin.

139. In expressing by (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (m. 彼 pei):—

- 撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá yá niáng tsah bé‘, he was reproved by his parents

140. Along with is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 tóng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.

- 忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, go with him.

- 同我你跑 tóng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, go with us.

- 替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, go with me.

- 我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ páng ’yeu, I will be your friend.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, brother (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. Case particles in other languages. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

- 口 ’k’eu, mouth, an opening. It is only used in combination.

- 口音 ’k’eu yun, speech.

- 口才 ’k’eu dzé, fluency.

- 口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, plausible but not sincere.

- 三叉路口 san t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, where three roads meet.

- 口頭言語 ’k’eu deu íen ’nü, colloquial particles.

- 一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, all he says is in the dialect.

- 門口 mun ’k’eu, opening.

- 海口 ’hé ’k’eu, sea-port.

- 乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, Háng-cheú bay.

- 口說無憑 ’k’eu söh m bing, words without foundation.

- 有口無心 ’yeu k’eu m sing, speaking without thinking, mere words.

- 一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, spoke decisively.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. Breath, vapour.

透氣 t’eu k’í‘, to breathe. | 地氣 tí k’í‘, climate.
濕氣 sák k’í‘, moisture. | 斷氣 dön‘ k’í‘, to die.

2. Anger.

- 惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, provoke you.

- 勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ do not be angry.

- 氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, provoke me greatly.

3. Manner, expression, meaning.

- 陽氣來咾 yáng k’í‘ lé lau, beautifully ornamented.

- 神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ wén zén, likeness to perfect.

- 勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, do not stand on ceremony.

- 大有福氣 tú‘ ’yeu fóh k’í‘, has great happiness.

145. 心 sing, heart, mind.

- 心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, attend to your book.

- 心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, has an intelligent mind.

- 摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’tan, mind set on schemes.

- 當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, pay attention.

- 盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, do your utmost.

- 兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, double-minded.

- 白費心思 pak fí‘ sing sz, planning in vain.

- 一心一念 ih sing ih nian‘, all intent upon.

- 直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, honest, sincere.

- 心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nian, resolutely intent on.

- 赤胆忠心 t’suk ’tan tsóng sing, faithful.

146. 手 ’seu, hand, an artisan.

- 上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’au ’seu, superior and inferior workmen.

- 動手勿得 ’tóng ’seu veh tuh, may not put hand to it.

- 手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lön, confused and wrong.

- 親手 t’sing ’seu, with his own hand.

- 一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu nan tsó t’íen ’au móh, one hand cannot cover the eyes of all the world.

- 白手求財 pák ’seu gieu dzé, want money without earning it

- 幫手 pong ’seu, assistant.

- 傳手 dzén ’seu, from hand to hand.

147. 分 vun‘, duty, divisions.

- 十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth.

- 名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, duties.

- 職分꜄ tsuh vun‘, an office.

- 一生安分꜄ ih sáng ön vun‘, do my duty a whole lifetime.

- 分꜄所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zén, as in duty bound.

148. 頭 teu, head.

- 唔頭唔腦 m deu m ’nau, without order.

- 頭二百里 teu ní‘ páh ’lí, about 200 Chinese miles.

- 幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? how many men?

- 起頭 ’k’í deu, at the beginning.

- 頭頭是道 teu deu ’zz dau‘, it is all reasonable.

149. 眼 ngan eye, a point, a small hole.

- 一眼勿差 ih ngan veh t’só, quite right.

- 眼睛勿好 ’ngan tsing veh ’hau, his eyes are bad.

- 只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a very little.

- 眼底無人 ’ngan tí m niun, thinks none so good as he.

150. 目 moh, eye.

頭目 teu móh, chief. | 賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, accounts.
眼目 ’ngan moh, eyes. | 數目 sú‘ moh, numbers.
大關節目 tá‘ kwan tsih móh, important doctrine.

151. 底 ’tí, bottom.

- 月底 niöh ’tí, end of the month.

- 年底 níen ’tí, end of the year.

- 私底下 sz ’tí ’au, secretly.

- 底裡 ’tí ’li, at the bottom.

- 底下挽通 ’tí ’au ’wan t’óng, to inform secretly.

- 底面不和 ’tí míen‘ peh ú, heart and looks not agreeing.

- 直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, to the end.

- 脚底下 kiák ’tí ’au, under the feet.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the order of their frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, han‘, pén‘ ban, míen‘, píen, ’seu, teu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain this usage.

- 東半爿, 東面 tóng pén‘ ban, tóng míen‘, on the eastern side.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, within, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míen‘, píen, teu.

- Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míen‘, inside.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

Section 4. On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article a, an in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

- Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ san.

- Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé.

- Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí.

- A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wén ’láng ’sz.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like of is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, a sceptre of iron. Lat. virga ferrea.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

- 兩間房間 ’liáng kan vong kan, two rooms.

- 兩條鋼條 ’liáng diau kong diau, two steel springs.

- 三隻船隻 san tsáh zén tsáh, three boats.

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

- 箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative terms.

- 顆 ’k’ú, of pearls.

- 根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.

- 管 kwén (pipe), of flutes, pencils.

- 口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).

- 科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 san k’ú zû‘, 3 trees.

- 塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars.

- 件 kíen‘, of garments, affairs, news, things.

- 頭 teu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).

- 頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains.

- 朶 ’tú, of single flowers.

- 燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, a light.

- 堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, a wall.

- 條 tiau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.

- 把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.

- 本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays.

- 匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.)

- 面 míen, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.

- 幅 fóh, of pictures, maps.

- 對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, a letter.

- 文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common).

- 隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet, watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.

- 盞 ’tsan, of lamps.

- 樁 tsong, of matters.

- 種 ’tsóng, of matters.

- 枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks.

- 座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas.

- 乘 zung, of carriages.

- 圓 yön, of dollars.

- 樣 yáng‘, of affairs, matters.

- 項 háng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 to close up, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting a, an, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc., though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separately (see Art. 158–160).

- 間 kan, a room of a house, ih kan vong deu, a room.

- 口 ’k’eu, mouthful of breath, words, rice.

- 句 kü‘, a sentence of speech, ih kü seh wó‘.

- 竿 kûn, rod of bamboo for fishing, ih kûn diau‘ kûn.

- 科 k’ú, pluck up a heap of grass, pah ih k’ú ’t’sau.

- 塊 k’wé‘, a piece of land, meat, silver.

- 捆 ’k’wun (to roll), a faggot of wood.

- 局 kióh, play a game at chess, tsoh ih gióh gí.

- 眼 ’ngan (eye) holes in nets, of nails, cash, a little of any thing.

- 担 tan‘(to carry), a load of anything, ih tan‘ meh zz‘.

- 點 ’tíen drop of ink, little of anything.

- 湯 t’ong, how many kinds of food, ’kí t’ong van‘.

- 墩 tun, heap of earth, rubbish.

- 檯 té, a stage of plays, table of wine, food.

- 頭 teu, bring an end of rope, tan ih deu zung.

- 條 tiau, long piece of iron, wood, string of cash.

- 段 tön, piece cut off, of wood, string, etc.

- 板 ’pan, half sheet of paper.

- 包 pau (to wrap) a parcel, bundle of cotton, sugar.

- 把 ’pó, handful of rice, ih ’pó ’mí.

- 派 p’á‘, division of things, kind of men, customs.

- 篇 p’íen‘, a piece of elegant composition, ih p’íen vun tsáng.

- 片 p’íen, piece of gold, ih p’íen kiun ’tsz.

- 疋 p’ih, piece of cloth.

- 鋪 p’ú (to spread), covering of carpets, coverlids.

- 門 mun (touch-hole), piece of artillery.

- 紐 ’nieu, san ’nieu zung, three skeins of string.

- 方 fong (square), a piece of cloth, land, ih fong tí bí.

- 封 fóng, a packet of silver, ih fóng niung ’tsz.

- 手 ’seu, ih ’seu ni, handful of earth.

- 張 tsáng (to extend), sheet of paper.

- 節 tsih, knot of bamboo, joint of finger.

- 串 t’sén, string of flowers, cash, beads.

- 餐 t’sön, meal of rice.

- 軸 dzóh (rollers), map on rollers, ih gióh wó‘, a picture.

- 席 dzih (mat), party at dinner.

- 扇 sén‘, open one leaf of the door, ih sén‘ mun, k’é k’é.

- 重 zóng, layers of books, dress.

- 層 zung, story of pagodas, steps of ladders.

- 陣 dzun‘, gust of wind, shower of rain.

- 葉 ih, leaf of grass, flowers, ih ih ’t’sau, a blade of grass.

- 圓 yön, small cake of meat, medicine.

- 粒 lih, seed of corn.

Obs. i. Words expressing kind of, sort of such as 種樣星 tsóng yang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, that sort of man; 第星事體 tí‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, this sort of thing. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here.

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of a stone, the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, a piece of coal.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some instances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包, 張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. hold, handle, touch, walk, roll.

Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle of must be inserted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.

158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first those of books and characters.

- Divisions of books.

- 句 kü‘, sentence.

- 節 tsih, verse.

- 大 tá‘, column.

- 行 hong, column.

- 張 tsáng, leaf.

- 頁 yih, a leaf.

- 章 tsáng, section.

- 首 ’seu, ode.

- 篇 p’ien, chapter.

- 本 ’pun, volume.

- 都 pú‘, a whole work.

- Strokes of characters.
- 點 ’tíen ㇔
- 劃 wáh ㇐
- 𥪡 ’zû ㇑
- 剔 t’iuh ㇂
- 撇 p’ih ㇒
- 捺 nah ㇏
- 挑 t’iau ㇀
- 拂 fah ㇓
- 圏 k’iön, small circle. 〇

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, san tíen, mau‘, ’au ’tí yeu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

碗 wén, bowl. | 盤 pén, tray.
盞 tsan, ib. | 桶 ’tóng, bucket.
盆 pun, a plate. | 匣 hah, casket.
缸 kong, large jar. | 箱 siáng, chest.
㼦 páng‘, pitcher. | 籃 lan, basket.
瓶 ping, bottle, jar. | 簍 ’lieu, small hamper.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wén, a cup; ih wén dzó‘, a cup of tea.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use.

Land and Long Measure. | Dry Measure.
畝 meu, 240 square pú‘. | 石 sáh, 10 teu.
站 dzan‘, 90 ’lí. | 斗 ’teu, 10 sung.
里 ’lí, 360 pú‘. | 升 sung, a pint.
步 pú‘, five feet. | 合 keh, tenth of a pint.
丈 záng‘, ten feet. | 抄 t’sau, 100th of keh.
尺 t’sáh, foot (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.)
寸 t’sun‘, tenth of a foot.
分 fun, tenth of a t’sun‘.

Weights.
担 tan‘, pecul. | 角 koh, 10 cents.
斤 kiun, catty. | 分 fun, 1 cent.
兩 ’liáng, tael. | 毫 háu, tenth of fun.
錢 dzíen, mace. | 釐 lí, tenth of hau.

Measures of time.
代 dé‘, generation. | 點 ’tíen, hour (with 鐘).
世 sz‘, ib. | 刻 k’uh, ¼ hour.
年 níen, year. | 分 fun, minute.
歲 sûe‘, ib. | 杪 miau, second.
日 nyih, day. | 歇 h’ih, instant.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from a pair to a multitude, here follow:—

- 句 kü‘, sentence of words.

- 聯 líen, pair of corresponding sentences of poetry.

- 雙 song, pair of shoes.

- 對 té‘, opposite pair of candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, pair of fowls.

- 股 ’kú, 2 or 3 in trade; san ’ku k’é, divide between three.

- 排 pá, a pile or raft of timber, row of trees.

- 隊 té‘, a rank of soldiers, ih dé ping.

- 帖 t’ih, parcel of ten pencils, ih t’ih pih.

- 刀 tau, 100 sheets of paper, ih tau ’tsz.

- 炷 tsû, bundle of incense, ih tsû h’iáng.

- 套 t’au‘, coverful of books, ih t’au‘, sû.

- 串 t’sén chain of 1,000 cash.

- 羣 kiün, flock of birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau.

- 副 fú‘, suit of clothes, ih fú‘ í zong.

- 行 hong, rows of birds flying, trees.

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

- 一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwén zé, a coffin.

- 造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, build a bridge.

- 殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, kill a fowl.

- 一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, a large pencil.

Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

- 一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, a sheet of paper.

- 二十担泥 ní‘ seh tan‘ ní, twenty loads of earth.

- 九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, pagoda of nine stories.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

- 一个面孔 ih ku‘ míen‘ ’k’óng, one face.

- 一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, one finger.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíen, ngan, are applied to any material noun in the sense of a little of. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

(III.) | 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, pound of cotton.
(II.) | 一包花 ih pau hwó, bundle of cotton.
(II.) | 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, a grain of rice.
(III.) | 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, a peck of rice.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

- 一隻羊 ih tsáh yáng, a sheep.

- 一塊羊肉 ih k’wé yáng nióh, a piece of mutton.

- 一斤羊肉 ih kiun yáng nióh, catty of mutton.

- 一羣羊 ih giün yáng, flock of sheep.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those that are used with verbs, expressing like our word times, the number of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 燙, 囘, 轉, 記; their use will be understood by examples.

- 來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, I have come twice.

- 去之一燙 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, having gone once.

- 要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng wé‘, you must read it twice.

- 走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsén dzieu‘ ding‘, after going round twice he stops.

- 打三十記 ’táng san seh kí‘, received 30 blows.

Section 5. On the Adjective. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

Antithesis. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

- 輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, light, heavy.

- 大小 tú‘, ’siau, great, little.

- 多少 tú ’sau, many, few.

- 長短 dzáng, ’tön, long, short.

- 厚薄 ’heu, póh, thick, thin.

- 闊狹 k’weh, hah, broad, narrow.

- 高低 kau, tí, high, low.

- 深淺 sun, ’t’síen, deep, shallow.

- 冷暖 ’láng, ’nön, cold, warm.

- 清濁 t’sing, dzóh, clear, muddy.

- 快慢 k’wá‘, man‘, quick, slow.

- 好孬 (c) ’hau, k’ieu, good, bad (k’ieu = 歹 ’té).

- 淡濃 tan‘, nióng, pale, deep.

- 早晚 ’tsau, an‘, early, late.

- 硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, hard, soft.

- 曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, crooked, straight.

- 正斜 tsung‘, siá, right, bent.

- 壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, fat, lean.

- 生熟 sáng, zóh, ripe, unripe.

- 鬆緊 sóng, kiun, loose, tight.

- 粗細 t’sú, sí‘, coarse, fine.

- 新舊 sing, ’kieu, new, old.

- 稀綳 (c) h’í, ’máng, few, crowded (máng = 密 mih).

- 貴强 (c) kü‘, giáng, dear, cheap (giáng = 賤 dzíen).

- 眞假 tsun, ’ká, true, false.

- 亮暗 liáng‘, en‘, light, dark.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (c) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g. how long? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dön? to say nothing about speed, veh ’kong k’wá man‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the other a double form.

佳 kiá, capable. | 唔用 m yúng‘, useless.
亂 lön‘, disturbed. | 太平 t’a‘ bing, peaceful.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the sign of the negative.

- 勿像我能 veh ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, not like me.

- 勿肯做 veh ’k’ung tsú‘, not willing to do it.

- 勿便當 veh bíen‘ tong‘, not convenient.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix un, e.g. unlike, unwilling.

Combination. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words occur.

淸爽 t’sing ’song, clear. | 忠厚 tsóng ’eu, faithful.
懶惰 lan dú‘, lazy. | 謙虛 k’íen h’ü, humble.
乾淨 kûn zing‘, clean. | 煩難 van nan, difficult.
聰明 t’sóng ming, clever. | 須少 sü ’sau, few.
毛草 mau ’t’sau, rough. | 許多 ’hü tú, many.
冷靜 ’láng ’zing, solitary. | 新鮮 sing síen, new.
粗疎 t’sú sú, coarse. | 呆笨 ngé bun‘, stupid
窮苦 kióng ’kú, poor. | 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, fierce.

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently indicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.

- 小器 ’siau (small) k’í‘, (vessel), parsimonious.

- 雪白 sih báh, snow-white.

- 厚道 ’heu (thick) dau‘ (doctrine), liberal.

- 大量 tû‘ (great) liáng‘, (capacity), generous.

- 刻薄 k’uh (to cut) bóh (thin), exacting.

- 認眞 niung‘ tsun, diligent.

- 拗强 au‘ (to bend) giáng, unyielding.

- 完全 wén (finish) zíen, complete (r. dzíen.)

- 氣悶 k’í‘(anger) mun‘ (sad), secretly sad.

- 高興 kau (wish) h’iung‘ (ready for), willing.

- 難過 nan (hard) ku‘ (to pass), painful, sad.

- 胆大 ’tan (liver) dú‘ (great), bold.

- 出客 t’seh (outside) k’áh, (visitor), handsome.

- 好笑 ’hau (good) siau‘ (laugh), ridiculous.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, straight as a wall; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘ yön, very round. In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preceding words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use, and present no etymology in their characters, being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

𨅓跎 sá dú, tired. | 豪燥 au sau‘, active, sharp.
齷齪 ok t’soh, dirty. | 㾑𤺥 keh dah, blind to reason.
囫圇 weh lun, entire. | 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, skillful.
葛列 köh lih, clean. | 玲瓏 ling lóng, intelligent. m.

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.

- 瞎搭搭 p. hah tah tah, irregular.

- 硬𨅘𨅘 p. ngáng‘ báng báng, hard and stiff.

- 軟滋滋 ’niön tsz tsz, soft.

- 滑澾澾 p. wah t’ah t’ah, slippery.

- 閙嚷嚷 ’nau záng záng, noisy, humming.

- 毛萋萋 mau ts’í ts’í, rough.

- 暖筒筒 p. ’nön dóng dóng, warm.

- 直條條 dzuh diau diau, straight.

- 矮矬矬 ’á t’sú t’sú, dwarfish.

- 短悠悠 ’tön yeu yeu, „

- 白雪雪 pak sih sih, snow-white.

- 黑搨搨 p. huk t’ah t’ah, black.

Obs. i. In examples not marked p. the repeated word has an independent sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

- 正大光明 tsung‘ dá‘ kwong ming, upright and wise.

- 寬弘大量 k’wén óng dú‘ liáng‘, generous.

- 井井有條 ’tsing ’tsing ’yeu diau, very regular.

- 希奇古怪 h’i gi ’kú kwá‘, extraordinary.

- 長長遠遠 dzáng dzáng ’yön ’yön long in time.

- 高高低低 kau kau tí tí, irregular in height.

- 忙忙碌碌 mong mong lóh lóh, busy.

- 胆胆大大 ’tan ’tan dú‘ dú‘, boldy.

Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.

- 好人 ’hau niun, good man.

- 人是好個 niun ’zz ’hau kú‘, the man is good.

- 白糖 páh dong, white sugar.

- 清水 t’sing ’sz, clear water.

- 快馬 k’wá‘ ’mó, swift horse.

- 冷飯 ’láng van‘, cold rice.

- 舊書 kieu‘ sû, old books.

- 馬倒勿快 ’mó ’tau veh k’wa‘, yet the horse goes slowly.

- 水淸是清個 ’sz t’sing ’zz t’sing ku‘, the water is clear.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed before them in combination.

洋刀 yáng tau, foreign knife. | 石路 zah lú‘, stone road.
牛奶 nieu ’ná, buffalo milk. | 海船 ’hé zén, sea junk.

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106. Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the following noun.

- 種拉个稻 tsóng‘ ’lá kú‘ ’dau, the sown rice.

- 死个人多 ’sí kú‘ niun tú, those that die are many.

- 愛拉个囝 é‘ ’lá kú‘ ’siau nön, a dear child.

- 活个物事 weh kú‘ meh zz‘ living thing.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English a darkened room, a beloved child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, dead man; 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, filial son; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, filial daughter.

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

- 喜歡得極 ’h’í hwén tuh giuh, exceedingly glad.

- 牛喜歡水 nieu ’h’í hwén ’sz, buffaloes are fond of water.

- 快快活活 k’a‘ k’a‘ weh weh, very glad.

- 伊總快活儂 í tsóng k’a‘ weh nóng‘, he will certainly be pleased with you.

Comparison of adjectives. 177. The comparative is expressed in several ways, as by—
a. 再 tsé‘, again, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.

- 勿能再少 veh nung tsé‘ ’sau, I cannot say less.

- 再大無沒 tsé‘ dú‘ m méh, there are none larger.

- 再强有否 tsé‘ giáng ’yeu ’vá? have you any cheaper?

b. 點 ’tíen, a little, follows the word that it qualifies.

- 第本書好點 tí‘ ’pun sû ’hau ’tíen, this book is better.

- 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíen ’tseu, walk a little faster.

- 多點末者 tú ’tíen meh ’tsé, say a little more.

c. 一眼 ih ’ngan, a little, is similar in use to the last.

- 倒好一眼 ’tau ’hau ih ’ngan, this is however something better.

- 高大一眼 kau dú‘ ih ’ngan, let it be better and more.

d. 還 wan still, further; this word combined with 要 yau‘, to want, makes the adjective that follows comparative.

- 還要好 wan yau‘ ’hau, I want better yet.

- 工力還要細 kúng fú wan yau‘ sí‘, I want the work finer.

e. 比 ’pí, compare; this word makes the adjective that follows comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be omitted.

- 上海勿比蘇州 Zong‘ ’hé veh ’pí Sú tseu, Shanghai cannot be compared to Sú-cheú.

- 比我還好 ’pí ’ngú wan ’hau, he is better than I.

- 比我好 ’pí ’ngú ’hau, do.

- 勿算比我好 veh sûn ’pí ’ngú ’hau, he is not to be thought better than I.

f. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, to add, follows it.

- 勿去更好 veh k’í‘ kung‘ hau, not to go would be better.

- 更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, still more wrong.

- 更加無用 kung‘ ká m yúng‘, much more useless.

g. 越 yöh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah, to express follows it.

- 越多越好 yöh tú yöh ’hau, the more the better.

- 越發窮越發要生病 yöh fah gióng yöh fah yau‘ sáng bing‘, the poorer men are, the more liable they are to sickness.

- 越發明白末越發要喜歡 yöh fah ming báh meh, yöh fah yau‘ ’h’í hwén, the more you understand it, the better you will be pleased with it.

h. 又 í‘, again, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the sentence.

- 第个人又好 tí‘ kú‘ niun í‘ ’hau, this man is better.

- 落雨又多 loh ’ü í‘ tú, it rains still more.

i. 又加 í‘ ká, still more is often preceded by 比 ’pí.

- 比我又加明白 ’pí ’ngú í‘ ká ming báh, he is still more intelligent than I.

k. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíen add or fong‘ dú‘, increase.

- 加伊個膽量 ká í kú‘ ’tan liáng‘, grew more courageous.

- 今朝風加大 kiun tsau fóng ká dú‘, the wind is higher to-day.

- 鞋子要放大 há ’tsz yau‘ fong‘ dú‘, make the shoes larger.

- 銅錢要添點 tóng díen yau‘ t’íen ’tíen, you must give more money.

l. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the adjective.

- 昨日好得多者 zoh nyih ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, yesterday he was much better.

- 第根竹頭比伊根長学得多 tí‘ kun tsóh-deu ’pí í kun dzang tuh tú, this bamboo is much larger than that.

- 第二隻鷄重得多 tí‘ ní‘ tsáh kí dzóng‘ tuh tú, the second fowl is much heavier.

m. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the compared objects is mentioned.

- 高六寸 kau lók t’sun‘, taller by six inches.

Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind, understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊二尺 ti‘ tsáh zén ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, this boat is two feet wider than that. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí zien nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, my mother is much better than the day before yesterday.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.

1. Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.

2. Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 compare is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’kan ’sau, 減脫 ’kan t’eh, subtract.

3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a difference without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffix er than to the particle more. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particle the, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

a. 頂 ’ting, highest, top.

- 天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, Sirius is a very bright star.

- 頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, at the lowest price.

- 伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, that man is very intelligent.

- 頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, very great, very many.

b. 最 tsûe‘, exceedingly, the most.

- 老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ é‘, the tiger is very fierce.

- 窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng wong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau k’ön‘, among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful.

- 天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íen dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, of all things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent.

c. 極, kiuh, extremely; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

- 聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, extremely intelligent.

- 極深奧 kiuh sun au‘, extremely profound.

- 有文理得極 ’yeu vun ’lí tuh giuh, very beautifully written.

- 斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, extremely polite and elegant.

d. 野 ’yá, wild, great; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

- 黃浦裡險得野 Wong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híen tuh ’ya, the Hwang-p’u is very dangerous.

- 天高來野拉 t’íen kau le ’yá ’lá, heaven is very high.

e. 死 ’sí, to die; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

- 米行情貴來死 ’mí hong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, the price of rice is very high.

- 年勢好來死 níen sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, it is a very good year.

- 今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, to-day the wind is very high.

f. 嘸做 m tsú‘, there is nothing that can be done; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

- 風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé m tsú, the wind is very high.

- 日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu yong‘ lé m tsú‘, the sun is very bright.

- 學問深來嘸做 hoh vun‘ sun lé m tsú‘, his learning is very profound.

g. 煞 sah, very. lit. a twinkling. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1] sah, kill).

- 强盜靈多煞 kiáng dau‘ tú sah, the robbers are very many.

- 勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, not very light.

h. 頭一 teu ih, the first in importance.

- 頭一要緊 teu ih yau‘ ’kiun, the most important.

- 敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, filial piety is most important.

i. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, remarkably, exceedingly.

- 好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, exceedingly good.

j. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

- 重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fan veh tuh, extremely heavy.

k. 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, very, unspeakable. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly.

- 大來話勿得 tú‘ lé wó‘ veh tuh. unspeakably great.

- 話勿來個苦惱 wó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, unspeakably wretched.

l. 得利害 tuh lí‘ é‘, severe, dangerous.

- 重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ é‘, exceedingly heavy.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs very, extremely, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean best, or very good. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative. 1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, kiuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word. 2. The ordinal 頭一 teu ih, in mandarin 第一 tí ih, the first, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’yá, kiuh and lí‘ é, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and m tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class. 4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fan veh tuh, wonderful, very, 話勿得 wó‘ veh tuh (lé), unspeakable, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, endlessly, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 wén, finish is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 wó‘ lé ziáng‘ wén ’tsé, painted extremely like; 容貌黃完 yóng mau‘ wong wén, countenance very sallow.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 seh fun, ten parts and 十二分 seh ni‘ fun, twelve parts; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, the thing is thoroughly good.

[1] That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si, die, a word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner.

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

- 今朝念一 kiun tsau nian‘ ih, to-day is the 21st of the month.

- 咸豐二年 yan fóng ní‘ níen, the 2nd year of Hien-fúng.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh san, fifty three; 九十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, a hundred and four. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh san seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh san, a hundred and thirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of 一 ih, one, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, a hundred and eighty; one thousand four hundred is 千四 t’sien sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 man‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 tí‘ to the cardinal numbers.

- 正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, the 1st day of the 1st month.

- 明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, what day of the month is to-morrow.

- 後日初一者 ’heu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, the day after to-morrow is the first.

- 考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih tí‘ ih páh ming, he has passed the examination as the one hundredth.

- 第三十本 tí‘ san seh ’pun, the thirtieth volume.

- 是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ tí‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? which son are you?

- 排行第幾 pá hong dí‘ ’kí? which are you in order.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 teu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 pé‘, times; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, make it twice as large; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, make it four times as long.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

- 一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, one by me or one after another.

- 兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, two and two.

- 一行一行 ih hong ih hong, row by row.

- 一條一條 ih diau ih diau, in successive lengths.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síen, 1,000; 萬 man‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

- 論千論萬 lun t’síen lun man‘, thousands and myriads.

- 萬百樣物事 van‘ pah yáng‘ meh zz‘, all things.

- 論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, many thousands are come.

- 文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwén, all officers civil and military.

- 會醫百病 wé í páh bing‘, can cure all diseases.

- 百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, the flowers’ birth-day.

- 萬國九州 van‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, all countries.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

- 三心兩意 san sing ’liáng í‘, vacillating in opinion.

- 三轉九囘頭 san ’tsen ’kieu wé deu, constantly turning back.

- 七橫八豎 t’sih wáng pah ’zû, lying in all directions.

- 三伸四縮 san sun sz‘ soh, timidly advancing and retreating.

- 瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, all in confusion.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. at sixes and sevens.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

- 一 ih, one, whole, immediately upon.

- 獨一無二 tóh ih vú rh‘, there is only one.

- 一切說話 ih t’sih seh wó‘, all he said.

- 一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íen ’au, the whole empire.

- 一言旣出 ih íen kí‘ t’seh, the words have been said.

- 一定不易 ih ding‘ peh yuh, certainly unchangeable.

- 一念囘頭 ih nian‘ wé deu, sincerely repent.

- 一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, all he does.

- 一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, at the least thing, he fights.

- 一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ tih, the moment he begins to walk, he falls.

186. 全 dzien, complete, all.

- 勿完全 veh wén dzíen, not complete.

- 人全拉上 niun zén ’lá long‘, they are all there.

- 全關着 zén kwan zah, —they are all connected with—

187. 大 tá‘, great, very.

- 國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, it is a large kingdom.

- 要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ ní ’siau, will you have it large or small?

- 勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, it is not very large.

- 大人小囝 tú‘ niun ’siau nön, parents and children.

- 大勿喜歡 tú‘ veh ’h’í hwén, much displeased.

- 勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, not very good.

- 勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, seldom eat it.

188. 好 ’hau, good, well, that I may, it may.

- 禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, all are bad.

- 頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, worst of all.

- 恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately, just at the time.

- 勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, ashamed.

- 好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, are you well?

- 醫勿否 í veh ’hau, he cannot be cured.

- 勿能好 veh nung ’hau, I cannot recover.

- 好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ wé deu, that I may go and inform him.

- 好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, it may be done.

189. 靈 ling, efficacious, intelligent.

- 勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, powerless, inefficacious.

- 唔沒靈處 m meh ling t’sú‘, having no efficacy.

- 靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, always forgetting.

- 魂靈勿拉身上 wung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, ib.

190. 快 k’wá‘, fast, (adv.) near, soon, lively.

- 快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ yau, row quickly.

- 夜快者 yá‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, it will soon be night.

- 死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, he is dying.

- 快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, glad.

- 爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, well in health.

Section 6. On the Pronoun.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní, I, thou, he, you.

2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.

3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, tí‘, í, kú‘, this, that; also 彼此 pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.

4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, what? how many? inseparable, and 何 hú, what? 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), which? inseparable.

5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its use.

6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the personal pronoun.

7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, each, every.

8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.

9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, some, several.

10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzén, bih, all, other, separable and 凡 van, inseparable.

Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 I; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 kí, he.

- 我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am now going.

- 呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, I told you to come at once.

- 撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, I have given it him.

- 其撥拉我 kí peh ’lá ’ngú, he gave me.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express we; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, you; and 伊 í, they.

- 我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, we two.

- 那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, all you men.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

- 是我 ’zz ’ngú, I.

- 是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, he.

- 是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, all you men.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 seh ké k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, thus you see; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, if you do not come it will be unfortunate.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English it, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’ú ’tsé, it is raining.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, I, thou, he, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person he, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as I, and the third person, he. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwén ’ngú, the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’ngan tsing sú tsz í kú‘ nén niun, she looked on her husband.

193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

- 伊自家話 í zz‘ ká wo‘, he himself said.

- 儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, you must go yourself.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, self, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, to kill one’s-self; 自害自 zz‘ hé‘ zz‘, to injure one’s-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká hé‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 tí‘ kú‘, this, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, that.

- 第个事體 tí‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, this matter.

- 故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ that thing.

- 伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nön, that boy.

- 伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

- 第頭好包 tí‘ deu ’hau pau‘, here it is good walking.

- 故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, go and live there.

- 伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, the people there are few.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, that, this, that, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, that and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

Interrogatives. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, what? 那裏 ’á ’lí, where? and which? and 幾 ’kí, what? which? also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), how many.

- 啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, who knocks at the door?

- 啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, what is the matter.

- 儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, what do you want?

- 啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, where are you going?

- 爲啥實盖能 we‘ sá‘ seh ké‘ nung, why do you do so?

- 到那裏去 tau‘ ’á ’lí k’í‘, where are you going.

- 那裏堂 ’á ’lí dong, where?

- 那裏个戶堂 ’á ’lí kú‘ ú dong, which place?

- 那裏个人 ’á ’lí kú‘ niun, which man?

- 那裏條路 ’á ’lí diau lú‘, which road?

- 幾時 ’kí zz, what time?

- 幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, what time?

- 幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíen tsóng, what it is o’clock?

- 幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díen, how many cash?

- 轎夫幾家頭 kiau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, how many chair-bearers?

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate place; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 hú, what? is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ hú, there is nothing I can do. But it is not used alone.

Relative pronouns. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense therefore, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, house.

- 新所在 sin sû ’dzé, a new house.

- 所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ ü‘ bé‘, therefore you must prepare.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

- 買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ tan lé peh ’lá gióng niun, bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the poor. m. ’só ’mái tih ’mí.

- 網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’an lau k’áng ’k’én lau, t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, nets, traps and covered pits, are all for catching animals. m. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih.

- 儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, the house which you have built. m. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz.

- 皇帝賞個俸祿 wong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, the emoluments which are conferred by the emperor.

Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

- 我個兒子 ’ngú kú‘ ní ’tsz, my son.

- 儂个宗祖 nóng‘ kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, your ancestors.

- 第塊地皮是㑚个 tí k’wé dí‘ bí ’zz ná‘ kú‘, this piece of land is yours.

Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin, you, 咱 ’lán, we has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin, your; 阮 ’gwan, mine, 咱 ’lán, ours; 因 in, their, his. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination n looks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú han‘ deu lé, come to me. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, one of your dogs. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

Distributive pronouns. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.

每 ’mé, each.

- 每人撥一塊 ’mé niun peh ih k’wé‘, give one piece to each.

- 每家兩个人 ’mé ká ’liáng kú‘ niun, in each family there are two.

逐 dzóh, each in succession.

- 逐一个殺一干 dzóh ih kú‘ sah ih kûn, let each person kill one.

- 逐日出門一囘 dzóh nyih t’seh mun ih wé‘, go out once day.

- 逐樣菜拔脫一科 dzóh yáng t’sé‘ bah t’eh ih k’ú, of each kind of vegetable, pull up one plant.

- 逐科花採一朶 dzóh k’ú hwó ’t’sé ih ’tú, of each plant pluck one flower.

各 koh, each, every.

- 各樣書買一部 koh yáng‘ sû ’má ih bú‘, buy a book of every sort.

- 各樣顔色要 koh yáng‘ ’ngán suh yau‘, I want every kind of colour.

- 各人良心勿差 koh niun liáng sing veh t’só, men’s consciences tell them what is right.

- 各管各 koh ’kwén koh, each attends to his own affairs.

- 各處風俗不同 koh t’sû‘ fóng zóh peh dóng, different places have different customs.

Obs. i. Like the Greek pas, all or each, 各 koh is also an adjective all; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, all places.

Obs. ii. 每 mé, means always, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, I wish constantly to come and see you; 每每 ’mé ’mé, always.

Reciprocal pronouns. 199. Phrases such as one another are expressed by 大家 tá‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, mutually; or by 相 siáng, together, in combination.

- 總要家家相帮 ’tsóng yau‘ ká ká siáng pong, you ought to help one another.

- 我忒儂相遇 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ siáng nü‘, you and I meet.

- 大家吃茶 tá‘ ká k’iuh dzó, take tea together.

Indefinite pronouns. 200. The word some in some one, something, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’yeu, have. Anything is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’yeu preceding; in the negative, 唔 m takes the place of ’yeu.

- 某處某人 ’meu t’sû ’meu niun, a certain man of certain place.

- 某書某人做個 ’meu sû ’meu niun tsú‘ kú‘, such a book written by such a person.

- 有人來話 ’yeu niun lé wó‘, some one came and said.

- 有是有個 ’yeu ’zz ’yeu kú‘, there is some.

- 唔啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, it is nothing.

- 有啥信息否 ’yeu sá‘ sing‘ sih ’vá, is there any news.

201. Several is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

- 來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, several men have some.

- 好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí wé‘ sú‘, several times.

- 大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, it is long since you come.

- 唔啥幾許 m sá ’kí hô‘, not many.

Obs. The Greek tis is either interrogative who? (Lat. quis?) or indifinite some one, (Lat. aliquis.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes how many? and at other times several. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either what? or any thing.

[1] Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”.

Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzén, all or both, and 總 ’tsóng, all. None and neither are also expressed by t’óh, and dzén with a negative.

- 兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, the two men are both gone.

- 全勿是 dzén veh ’zz, it is neither of them.

- 全是笨個 dzén ’zz bun‘ kú‘, they are all stupid.

- 對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, are they right? they are all right.

Any one you please, whoever, whatever, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 tá‘ van, generally speaking, whoever.

- 大凡人做好個就有好報 tá‘ van niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’yeu ’hau pau‘, whoever does well, will be at once rewarded.

Obs. 凡 van and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, does not matter what.

- 勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, however many.

- 勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau an‘, however early or late.

- 行事勿拘那能總勿局 háng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, whatever he does it is never right.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíen, as you please, whatever.

- 隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ zun kwong, at whatever time.

- 隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíen‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, any one would be willing to do it.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, whatever.

- 勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, on whatever day.

- 勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’yeu, at whatever time, when you want it, you have it at once.

e. sá‘ whatever.

- 想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ wó‘ sá‘, whatever he thinks, he says.

Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, who? may be answered by 第個人 tí‘ kú‘ niun, this man; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíen‘ sa‘ niun, any one whatever; 唔啥人 m sá‘ niun, no one; 多許人 tú hau‘ niun, many men. So also, 那裏隻船 ’á lí tsáh zén, which boat? may be answered by 第隻 tí‘ tsáh, this one; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’á lí tsáh, any one whatever; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, it is neither; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ tí‘ dah ’kí tsáh zén ’lí, it must be one of those that are here; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zén, it it another; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih yáng‘ kú‘ zén, the same boat as before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them pronominalia. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, all, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 kóng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng in all; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, all the people. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, all the brothers, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. All is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’yeu ku‘, every-where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, the whole.

Obs. v. Another translation of all is by 大凡 ta‘ van. Van is used in the sense of all in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. Other different, are expressed by pih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, not the same, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. The same is ih yáng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

- 要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, call another man.

- 總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih yáng‘, is certainly different.

- 到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, go elsewhere.

- 別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, another nation.

- 道理勿同個 ’tau ’lí veh dóng kú‘, different in principle.

- 話頭兩樣個 wó‘ deu ’liáng yáng‘ kú, what he says is different.

- 勿一樣個 veh ih yáng‘ kú‘, not the same.

- 又是一個 í‘ ’zz ih kú‘, that is another.

- 另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, call another.

- 一樣個否 ih yáng‘ kú‘ ’vá, is it the same?

- 相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, the same.

Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

a. 本 ’pun; belonging to this place, as demonstrative pronoun.

- 本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, people of this place.

- 本地話 ’pun dí‘ wó‘, dialect of this place.

- 本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz ú zong‘ kwén kú‘, this temple to which I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests.

- 本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, custom of this country.

b. 今 kiun, now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun, this in reference to time.

- 今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, to-day.

- 今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níen, this month, this year.

c. 親 t’sing, one’s own, as reflexive pronoun self; 親身 t’sing sun, himself; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, his own mouth.

d. 多少 tú ’sau, how many? as an interrogative pronoun.

- 多少年総 tú ’sau níen ’kí, how many years old.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, honoured, 貴 kwé‘, ib. 高 kau, high, combine with 姓 sing, family name, 國 kóh, kingdom, etc.

- 尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, your name?

- 尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, your age?

- 尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, where do you live?

- 尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, where is your residence?

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, residence; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’a ’lí, where do you reside?

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask of what honoured country are you? 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, what is your place of residence? 高徒 kau dú is translated your scholar; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of you, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, honoured, good, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive your.

令尊 ling tsun, your father. | 令堂 ling dong, your mother.
令兄 ling h’iung, yr. eld. bro. | 令姪 ling dzeh, your nephew.
令弟 ling dí‘ yr. younger bro. | 令郎 ling long, your son.
令夫人 ling fú zun, your wife.
令高徒 ling kau dú, your scholars.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 tá‘ are found in similar combinations.

- 老(大）爺 ’lau (tú‘) yá, sir.

- 大人 tá‘ zun, ib.

- 老(大）兄 ’lau (tá‘) h’iúng, elder brother.

- 老(大）哥 ’lau (tá‘) kú, ib.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síen sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, honoured with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzén‘, what it your honoured name? In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ wé‘ or 列位 lih wé‘, all you gentlemen!

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 hön, cold; 敝 pí, spoilt, inferior; 賤 dzíen, poor, cheap, form such groups, as—

- 寒門(家) hön mun (ka), my house.

- 寒荆 hön kiung, my wife, (kiung is thorn.)

- 敝處(地)(鄕) pí t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), my abode.

- 敝(賤)姓 pí (dzíen) sing‘, my family name.

- 賤名 dzíen ming, my proper name.

- 賤内 dzíen né‘ my wife.

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, stupid thorn.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, a cottage. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

舍弟 só‘ dí‘, my brother. | 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, my nephew.
舍下 só‘ ’au, my house. | 舍親 só‘ t’sing, my relations.

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, small, 家 ká, family, both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun my.

小兒 ’siau rh, my boy or my son. | 小犬 ’siau k’iön, small dog.
小徒 ’siau dú, your mother. | 小孫 ’siau sun, grandchild.
小弟 ’siau dí‘, I. | 小女 ’siau ’nü, my daughter.
家兄 ká h’iúng, my brother. | 家母 ká ’mú, my mother.
家父 ká ’vú, my father. | 家叔 ká sóh, my uncle.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. Thou and I, thine and mine are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’ngan tsing ’hau ’tíen ’vá, eye better, eh? So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, name, what? While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean you and your, while their opposites are I and mine.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

Section 7. On the verb, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 pú sú, move confusedly, and 盤桓 pén wén, to linger.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, to desire, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, to love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) Grouping of verbs.

Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

放 fong‘, let go. | 鑽 tsûn, to bore.
切 t’sih, cut in pieces. | 修 sieu, to prune.
刋 t’síen, cut away. | 鑤 pau‘, to plane.
剸 tsan, chop small. | 搭 tah, pitch tents.
砟 tsoh, to reap. | 拆 t’sáh, pull down.
挖 wah, scoop out. | 撞 dzong‘, meet.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

埋葬 má tsong‘, to bury. | 哀憐 é líen, to pity.
遮瞞 tsó mén, conceal. | 禱告 ’tau kau‘, to pray.
咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, revile. | 保庇 ’pau pí‘, protect.
調換 tiau wén, exchange. | 指點 ’tsz tíen, point to.
加添 ká t’íen, add. | 煩勞 van lau, importune.
話壞 wó‘ wá‘, calumniate. | 稱讚 t’sung tsan‘, to praise.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, go and come; 買賣 ’má má‘, buy and sell.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

- 惹笑 ’zá siau‘, cause to laugh.

- 怕打 p’ó ’táng, fear being beaten.

- 怕死 p’ó ’sí, fear dying.

- 開講 k’é ’kong, begin speaking.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

- 歸去 kü k’í‘, return home (lit. return go).

- 跑來 pau lé, come running, (lit. run come).

- 殺來 sah lé, come fighting.

- 抄寫 t’sau ’siá, to copy in writing (lit. copy write).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, go, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase go back, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsén lé, come back; the verb ’tsén is also best translated in English, as an adverb back.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó (horse) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz (sedan) lé, did you ride or come in a chair?

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

- 打敗 t’áng bá‘, fight and be defeated.

- 敲開 k’au (to beat) k’é (to open), to knock open.

- 咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, break by biting.

- 請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, please sit down.

- 寫完 ’siá wén finish writing.

- 做停 tsú‘ ding, finish making.

- 吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, die by strangling.

Obs. The English verb open, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as an open door, knock open a door, and to open a door, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. for an open door, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, the door is open.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíen‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

a. 得 tuh, get, may.

聽得 t’ing tuh, hear. | 曉得 ’hiau tuh, know.
記得 kí‘ tuh, remember. | 認得 niung‘ tuh, be acquainted.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, it may be done.

b. 脫 t’eh, let go, escape, remove out of the way.

去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, remove. | 除脫 dzû t’eh, to remove.
滅脫 mih t’eh, destroy. | 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, let go.
漏脫 leu t’eh, to leak. | 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, escape.
踢脫 t’ih (or tiuh) t’eh, kick away. | 卸脫 siá t’eh, flow away.
斷脫 dön‘ t’eh, sweep away. | 奪脫 töh t’eh, rob of.

Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, take off one’s clothes, where the book sound t’öh is employed.

c. 打 ’táng, to beat, apply one’s-self to.

打掃 ’táng ’sau, to sweep. | 打聽 ’táng t’ing, to inquire.
打發 ’táng fah, to send. | 打扇 ’táng sén‘, to fan.
打算 ’táng sön‘, consider. | 打結 ’táng kih, tie a knot.

Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong, drive piles; 打火 ’táng ’hú, strike a light.

d. 見 kíen‘, indicates a single act of perception.

- 看見 k’ön‘ kíen‘, see.

- 望見 mong‘ kíen‘, see.

- 聽見 t’ing kíen‘, to hear.

e. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.

- 碰着 páng‘ záh, to meet.

- 遇着 nü záh, ib.

- 捉着 tsoh záh, catch, or succeed in catching.

- 擒着 kiun záh, ib.

- 摸着 móh záh, rub, or can be rubbed.

- 奪着 döh záh, succeed in robbing.

- 得着 tuh záh, succeed in getting.

- 買着 ’má záh, succeed in buying.

Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.

Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, think of, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense of think of some particular thing. In 覺着 koh záh, become aware of, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, not be aware of.

f. 殺 sah, to kill.

- 勿話殺 veh wó‘ sah, he did not say decisively.

g. 住 dzû‘, resist, take firm hold. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.

- 阻住 ’tsú dzû‘, resist.

- 鎖住 ’sú dzû‘, prevent motion by locking up.

- 縛住 vóh dzû‘ ib. by tying up.

- 咬住 ’ngau dzû‘, hold with the teeth.

- 揑住 niah dzû‘, hold in the hand.

- 揪住 t’sieu dzû‘, hold with the hand.

h. 到 tau‘, arrived.

- 用到 yúng‘ tau‘, employ to the utmost.

- 做到 tsú‘ tau‘, do to perfection.

- 走到 ’tseu tau‘, complete a journey on foot.

- 昨日跑到 dzoh nyih pau‘ tau‘, he arrived yesterday.

218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.

走路 ’tseu lú‘, to walk. | 織布 tsuh pú‘, to weave.
射箭 zok tsien‘, to shoot. | 紡紗 ’fong só, to spin.
搖船 yau zén, to scull. | 活命 weh ming‘, to live.

Obs. i. So also 話說話 wó‘ seh wó‘, to speak. The words seh wó‘, words, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, lead the way; 燒飯 sau van‘, to boil rice, to cook.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing van‘ k’iuh, seek for food, where 吃 is superfluous.

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

- 加長 ká, (add) dzáng (long), to lengthen.

- 親近 t’sing (to make near) ’giun, (near), become near, to approach closely.

- 掘深 kiöh, (dig) sun (deep), to deepen.

- 減輕 ’kan (subtract) k’iung (light), subtract from.

- 填高 tíen (place layers) kau (high), raise by layers.

- 話大 wó‘ (speak) dú‘ (great), speak highly of.

- 佈滿 ’pú (to cover) ’mén (full), fill up.

- 教差 kau‘ (instruct) t’só (wrong), teach wrong.

- 改正 ’ké (change) tsung‘ (correct), to correct.

- 捉牢 tsoh (catch) lau (firm), catch and retain.

Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, good, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, complete the making of.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation like prolongare, to lengthen, from longus or long in Latin, or lengthen from length in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective dzáng, long. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g. rub smooth, rub dry, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kûn.

Obs. iii. 差 t’só, wrong, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng, understand; 聽 t’ing, to hear; 待 té‘ treat any one. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.

220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.

- 囘頭 wé (turn) deu (head), to answer, to tell.

- 弄神 lóng‘ (trick) zun (spirits), to deceive.

- 到手 tau‘ (reach to) ’seu (hand), have in possession.

- 算計 sön‘ (calculate) kí‘ (a plan), to plan.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’yeu, you should not deceive friends; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé wé deu ’ngú, come at once and tell me.

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.

- 踛上去 lóh ’zong k’í, go up (m. 升 shíng, 足 p‘a).

- 跑出來 pau‘ t’seh lé, walk out (m. 走 ’tseu).

- 搿住拉 geh dzû‘ ’lá, held by the arm (m. 挾 hieh).

- 碰着 páng‘ záh, meet (m. 遇 ü‘ and p‘eng choh).

- 挬輔 peh ’tsén, turn around (m. 囘 hwei).

- 担到此地 tan tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘, bring here (m. 拿 ná 端 twan).

- 甩脱 hwah t’eh, throw away (m. 扔下 jeng‘ hia‘).

- 孛相 peh siáng‘, to ramble (m. 遊桄 yeu kwang‘).

- 坍銃 t’an t’sóng, to be ashamed.

- 撥拉我 peh ’lá ’ngú, give it me (m. 給 ki‘, ’kei).

- 做唆 tsu‘ sú‘, to deceive.

Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of give. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’pau run, and pau‘ walk.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

- 預備 ü‘ (before) bé‘ (prepare), to prepare.

- 相打 siáng (mutually) ’táng (beat), to fight.

- 相罵 siáng (mutually) mó‘ (rail) rail at one another.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, come, and 去 k’i‘, go, to express the direction of the action of verbs.

- 敲進去 k’au tsing‘ k’í, knock in.

- 担上來 tan ’zong lé, bring forward.

- 走下來 ’tseu ’au lé, walk down.

- 殺前去 sah zíen k’í‘, fight on before.

- 踛起來 lók ’k’í lé, stand up.

- 坐下來 ’zú ’au lé, sit down.

- 做進去 ’zú tsing‘ k’í, sit farther up.

- 飛出來 fí t’seh lé, fly out.

- 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, come through.

- 拉過去 ’lá kú‘ k’í‘, drag past.

- 掇起來 töh ’k’í lé, lift up.

- 縮轉來 sók ’tsén lé, turn back.

- 丟下來 kwan‘ ’au lé, throw down.

- 走開來 ’tseu k’é lé, walk away.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh, to go out, outward; 進 tsing‘, to go in, inward; 起 ’k’í, to raise up, upward; 過 kú‘, to pass, through, across; 轉 ’tsén, to return, back; 開 k’é, to open, away. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong, forward, 下 ’au backward, downward, 前 zíen, before, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, go to Sú-cheú; 下船 ’au zén, to enter a boat.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words ascend, descend; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224. The beginning and completion of an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, begin and 成功 zung kóng, complete to the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, wén, ding, finish, and 好 ’hau, well, stand for completion.

- 寫起來 ’siá ’k’í lé, begin writing.

- 做成工 tsú‘ zung kóng, to finish making.

- 畫成工 wó zung kóng, finish painting.

- 今朝做起 kiun tsau tsú ’k’í, begin to-day.

- 幾時做完 ’kí zz tsú‘ wén, when will you finish?

- 勿曾話停 veh zung wó ding, has not done speaking.

- 造好者 ’zau ’hau ’tsé, finished building.

Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco, I grow warm, from calco.

Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, do a thing badly. But then the sense of beginning is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í lé, becomes hot; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé wó veh tuh, it is excessively hot. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for it is hot.

Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’tóng ’k’í ’seu lé, to move ones hand. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsén sun ’t’í lé, turn one’s body round: 担出洋錢來 tan t’seh yáng díen lé, bring out dollars.

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, collect, and 開 k’é, open.

- 聚攏來 dzü ’lóng lé, collect together.

- 幷攏來 ’ping ’lóng lé, add together.

- 散開來 san k’é lé, scatter.

- 拆開來 t’sáh k’é lé, undo.

- 分開來 fun k’é lé, divide.

- 解開來 ’ká k’é lé, untie.

226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after the verb.

- 自嚇自 zz‘ háh zz‘, frighten one’s-self.

- 自騙自 zz‘ p’ien‘ zz‘, deceive one’s-self.

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.

Groups. Affirmative and negative. 227. The groups formed by help of the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh m.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the agent, that he is able or knows how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, able to do or make; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, unable to do or make.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, in circumstances to bear; 讀勿起 tóh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to learn to read; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, not strength to drag.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does succeed, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, can find (尋 zing seek); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, it did not, or cannot hit.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular direction; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, cannot go inside.

5th. Of verbs of motion, resistance and destruction, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng can walk; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, unable to resist; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, cannot get rid of.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) can be cured; 填勿滿 tíen veh ’mén cannot be filled by layers.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

a. 來 lé, come, 出 t’seh, go out, express able to.

- 寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, do not know how to write.

- 聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, have not the power to hear.

- 呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, know not what to call it.

- 講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, can discourse on it.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb. 聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, I do not hear very well.

b. 起 ’k’í, rise, expresses in circumstances to.

- 板勿起 ’pan veh ’k’í, it is not for me to look angry.

- 睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, afraid to sleep.

- 染勿起 ’níen veh ’k’í, will not bear to be dyed.

- 印勿起 yun‘ veh ’k’í, will not bear impressions.

- 見勿起 kíen‘ veh ’k’í, do not dare meet him.

c. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíen‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíen‘.

- 呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, succeed in calling him.

- 殺勿着 sah veh záh, not succeed in killing.

- 懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, cannot understand.

- 看勿出 k’ön‘ veh t’seh, I do not (or cannot) see it.

- 看勿見 k’ön‘ veh kíen‘, ib.

d. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express direction as in the examples.

- 進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, able to enter.

- 行勿出 háng veh t’seh, cannot pass out.

- 吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, cannot swallow or eat.

- 跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, cannot pass by.

- 縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsén, cannot return.

- 打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, can beat open.

- 睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, cannot lie down (either through pain or want of room).

e. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’tóng, dzû‘, express destruction, motion, and resistance. e.g.

- 滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, cannot destroy.

- 做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, disabled from work.

- 跑勿動 pau veh ’dóng, unable to walk.

- 免勿脱 ’mien veh t’eh, unable to avoid.

- 立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, not able to stand.

- 當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, able to resist.

f. 得 tuh, expresses permission and prohibition.

- 動勿得 tóng veh tuh, may not do it.

- 去得 k’i‘ tuh, may go.

- 逃走勿得 tau ’tseu veh tuh, may not flee.

g. 停, 完, express the cessation of an act.

- 呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, not cease to call .

- 哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, not cease to weep.

- 用勿完 yúng‘ veh wén, cannot exhaust by using.

- 痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, not cease to pain.

h. 成功, 盡, 到, express perfection of an act.

- 做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, cannot complete.

- 走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, can walk to.

- 想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, cannot reach in thought.

- 及勿到 kih veh tau‘, cannot come up to or equal.

- 報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, unable to shew sufficient gratitude.

i. 及 kih or kí, expresses there is time for.

- 抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, not time to copy.

- 追得及 tsûe tuh gí, time to overtake.

- 來勿及 lé veh gí, not time for it.

j. 落 loh, expresses room for.

- 擱得落 koh tuh loh, room to pack.

- 安勿落 ön veh loh, not room to place.

- 坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, not room to sit.

k. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

- 打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng ’á ’táng í veh kú‘, wó‘ ’á wó‘ í veh kú‘, cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue.

- 敵得過 tih tuh kú‘, can oppose him successfully.

l. 理 ’lí, to control, ’long, bring together, 殺 sah, kill and 應 yung‘, answer, add their own sense to the verb.

- 話勿理 wo‘ veh ’lí, not attend to what is said.

- 喊得理 han‘ tuh ’lí, will come when called.

- 合勿攏 heh veh ’lóng, cannot agree together.

- 呌勿應 kiau‘ veh yung‘, not answer a call.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, to despise; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, not succeed in buying; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, incredible; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, cannot but pity; 罷勿得 pá‘ veh tuh, indispensable.

Obs. ii. 有 ’yeu, have and 嘸 m, not to have, form with tuh a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’yeu tuh k’iuh, have something to eat; 嘸得着 m tuh tsáh, have nothing to wear.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

a. 前 zíen before.

- 殺勿前 sah veh zíen, does not go forward fighting.

b. 上 ’zong, forward.

- 踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, cannot be climbed.

- 鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, (key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)

- 門關勿上 mun kwan veh ’zong, door will not shut.

c. 下 ’au, down.

- 踛勿下 lóh veh ’au, cannot climb down.

- 吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’au, cannot swallow.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

- 讀勿全 tóh veh dzíen, cannot be read through.

- 伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, cannot stretch out straight.

- 差勿多 t’só veh tú, differs little.

- 話得好 wó‘ tuh ’hau, well spoken.

- 補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mén, can be filled up.

- 走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, no thoroughfare.

- 話勿明白 wó‘ veh ming báh, cannot be made to understand.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, he can walk fast, but of fact, he walks fast.

Repetition and Antithesis. 231. These occur extensively among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.

а. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

坐坐 ’zú zú‘, sit down. | 看看 k’ön‘ k’ön‘, look.

b. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

- 寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, write.

- 種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díen, work in the fields.

- 候候儂 heu‘ heu‘ nóng‘, I come to see you.

c. k’ön‘, see, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

- 睃睃看 sú sú k’ön‘, see what it is.

- 聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ön‘, listen to it and see.

- 試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ön‘, try it and see.

- 做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ön‘, make it as a trial.

Obs. K’ön‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nian‘ ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read and let me hear.

d. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

- 談談說說 tan dan söh söh, conversing.

- 啼啼哭哭 tí dí k’óh k’óh, weeping.

- 來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, coming and going.

e. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

- 攀談攀談 p’an dan p’an dan, talking.

- 恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, I congratulate you.

f. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

- 嘸邊嘸岸 m píen m ngön‘, not having a shore.

- 動手動脚 ’tóng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, move hands and feet.

- 有憑有據 ’yeu bing yeu kü‘, there is evidence.

g. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

- 求天拜地 kieu t’íen pá‘ dí‘, pray to heaven and worship earth.

- 幷心竭力 ping‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), employ one’s whole mind and strength.

h. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

- 跑来跑去 ’pau lé ’pau k’í‘, walking about.

- 搖進搖出 yau tsing‘ yau t’seh, row in and out.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih to represent a little of the act in question.

- 走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, walk a little.

- 等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, wait a little.

- 待個待 té‘ kú‘ dé‘, wait.

- 做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, sit down.

Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, make it as large again. Other auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, we‘, applied to any verb in the sense of times. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsén with the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘ expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.

(2.) Different kinds of verbs.

Substantive verb. 233. The verb to be used as a copula is often omitted.

- 我你讀書個 ’ngú ’ní tók sû kú‘, we are persons of education.

- 第個人長 tí kú‘ niun dzáng, this man is tall.

- 今朝最冷 kiun tsau tsûe‘ ’láng, to-day it is very cold.

234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs, and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.

- 是儂個否 ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ ’vá, is it yours?

- 是個勿是個 ’zz ku‘, veh ’zz ku‘, it is; it is not.

- 我做裁縫 ’ngú tsú‘ dzé vóng, I am a tailor.

- 做兒子要孝 tsú‘ ní ’tsz yau‘ h’iau‘, he who is a son should be filial.

- 勿勒拉此地 veh leh ’la ’t’sz di‘, he is not here.

Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, to call is sometimes so used that is may be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í yáng‘ ’tau ’lí veh kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 that mode of action is not good, or is not what may be called good.

Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, be your own master; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh wé ’zén, repent and be virtuous; 强盜作反 kiáng dau‘ tsok ’fan, the robbers are rebelling; 當兵 tong ping, to be a soldier.

Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb make or do, which is its primary meaning.

Obs. iv. 有 to have when no object follows affirms existence and is to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g. 魚有否 ng ’yeu ’vá, are there any fish? 豈有此理 ’k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? (It snows now, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its negative is 嘸 m or 嘸沒 m meh.

[1] The substantive verb either simply affirms 是 ’zz or it affirms action 做 tsú‘ or it affirms existence in place 在 ’zé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, or it affirms existence 有 ’yeu.

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative precedes.

- 官府刻薄百姓 kwén ’fú k’uh bóh pák sing‘, the mandarins exact from the people.

- 兵搶物事 ping ’t’siáng meh zz‘, the soldiers commit robberies.

236. When there are two objects as in verbs of giving, the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with 拉 ’lá.

- 送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, present you with gifts.

- 撥飯拉儂吃 peh van‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, give you rice.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íen ’tsz nung tsíen‘ zun ü t’íen, the emperor can propose a person to Heaven; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, I bring you a present, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ I bring you a few things, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 tan, which is also the sign of the instrument.

- 担蠟燭火吹隱 tan lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, blow out the candle.

- 担竹爿來打 tan tsók pan lé ’táng, strike with a bamboo.

- 担門關子 tan mun kwan tsz, shut the door.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

- 此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, sit here.

- 第頭跑 tí‘ deu pau‘, walk here.

- 幾時來 ’kí zz lé, when did you come.

- 我船上來 ’ngú zén long‘ lé, I come from the boat.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, come here is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá tí‘ tah, sit here, is the same as ’lá tí‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, give, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

- 撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, was beaten by others.

- 撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, I was deceived by him.

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, give, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh san ’liang kú‘ tóng dien ’lá í, give him two or three cash. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, he was rebuked by his parents. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, my hat has been stolen by some one. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, cause him to die; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, he has caused me to suffer. (m. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? who is willing to allow others to insult him? 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, do not allow others to deceive you.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to give, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 to receive, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, unwilling to be spoken ill of by others. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense to eat.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, to call, or peh, to give.

- 呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, causing me to suffer loss.

- 勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, do not cause me to give it away (or say it) in vain.

- 呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, prevent the water from boiling.

- 撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwén sz, causing me to be the subject of a lawsuit.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb must is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, you must be upright.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 ti ’k’í pih lé, take up the pen; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yön‘ zz‘, be one’s own enemy; Collective, 合攏來 heh ’lóng lé, combine together; Separative, 折開來 t’sák k’é lé, pull open; Completing, 造完 ’zau wén, finish building; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, stand against; Destroying, 丢脫 tieu t’eh, throw away. There are also forms for the various directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) Modes of verbs.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has no particular sign.

- 我去買 ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, I will go and buy. (Indicative.)

- 是儂去還便當 ’zz nóng‘ k’í‘ wan bíen‘ tong‘, if you should go, it would be more convenient. (Subjunctive.)

- 儂去買 nóng‘ k’í‘ má, do you go and buy. (Imperative.)

- 買是容易 ’má ’zz yúng í‘, to buy is easy. (Infinitive).

Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified without any distinctive sign.

242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often mark indicative and conditional prepositions respectively.

- 現在落雨末年世好者 híen‘ ’dzé loh ’ü meh, níen sz‘ ’hau ’tsé, should it now rain, it will be a good year.

- 年紀大末勿要者 níen ’kí dú‘ meh veh yau‘ ’tsé, if old, they are not wanted.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’u pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú ’nau, if it does not rain, the people must suffer.

Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz ’t’au van‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯個末就打起來者 when he saw the beggars, he began beating them. Both these clauses are in the past time.

Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus 來者 lé ’tsé, I am come, or I come; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, I go.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.

- 吾吃之飯就來者 ngú k’iuh tsz van‘ dzieu‘ lé ’tsé, having dined I came at once.

244. A potential mood is formed by many of the groups already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—

- 寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, I cannot write.

- 講究得來 ’kong kieu‘ tuh lé, I can discuss it.

- 彎勿轉 wan veh ’tsén, cannot turn round.

Obs. 會 wé‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nian‘ veh lé, I cannot read, is equivalent to veh wé‘ nian‘.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.

- 當勿起 tong veh ’k’í, I do not deserve to receive it.

- 牽勿起 k’íen veh ’k’í, not able to pull.

- 磨勿起 mú veh ’k’í, will not bear rubbing.

- 吃勿起 k’iuh veh ’k’í, cannot afford to eat it.

- 打勿起 ’táng veh ’k’í, cannot bear beating.

- 手硬勿起 ’seu ngáng‘ veh ’k’í, could not use my hand roughly.

246. A permissive and prohibitive mood is formed by,—
a. 得 tuh.

- 看得 k’ön‘ tuh, you may look at.

- 看勿得 k’ön‘ veh tuh, you may not look.

b. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

- 好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, may I enter?

- 勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, you must not go out.

- 可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, you may eat it.

247. An optative mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and hng‘ veh tuh. (恨 hng‘, west of Shánghái hung‘).

- 我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíen tau‘, would that I could arrive quickly.

- 恨勿得做好 hng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, I wish I could do it.

248. The imperative (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, want, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

- 勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, do not be noisy.

(2.) The affirmative form of the imperative is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 pá‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, go. | 去罷 k’í bá‘, go.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either I am passing you or pass over to me.

249. the Infinitive it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.

- 念勿停 nian‘ veh ding, does not cease io recite.

- 吵閙勿停 t’sau nau‘ veh ding, does not cease to be noisy.

(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the infinitive, e.g.

- 去是容易 k’í‘ ’zz yóng í‘, it is easy to go.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present participle or gerund.

- 物事勒拉來 meh zz‘ leh ’lá lé, the things are coming.

- 吃飯個辰光 k’iuh van‘ kú‘ zun kwong, time for dining.

- 我拉寫字 ’ngú ’lá ’siá zz‘, I am writing.

- 吃個物事 k’iuh kú‘ meh zz‘, things to eat

Obs. The supine in order to has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíen sá‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, he is gone (in order) to buy something; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, I come to see you. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles man‘ and ’vá.

- 飯好曼 van‘ ’hau man‘, is dinner ready?

- 去否 k’í‘ ’vá, will you go?

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

- 肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, will you or not?

- 曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, do you know?

- 買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, will you buy?

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

- 要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, do you want to fight, or what is it you want to do?

(4) Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

- 我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, I am doing nothing.

- 來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, is he coming or not?

- 懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, do you understand or not?

- 怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, do you fear cold?

- 勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; I cannot but fear cold.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

a. 歇 h’ih, a moment; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an aorist.

- 看歇戲否 k’ön‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, have you seen the play?

- 去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.

b. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. m. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb to be.

- 買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, they are bought.

- 賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, it is sold.

- 我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, I am going.

c. 過 kú‘, past; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

- 到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng wé‘, I have gone twice.

- 花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, how many flowers have you planted?

- 路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, how many miles of road have we walked?

Obs. 有 ’yeu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

d. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

- 認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, have known him.

- 忒伊話歇者 t’eh í wó‘ h’ih ’tsé, have told him.

- 鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, bell has rung.

- 托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, have entrusted to him.

e. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

- 來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, I have come formerly.

- 勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, I have yet gone.

- 學過歇拉者 hok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, I have learnt it before.

f. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes tsiáng precedes. 要 may often be translated in order to (supine)

- 要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’ü ’tsé, it will rain.

- 明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, I will go to-morrow.

g. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

- 將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, there will be a disturbance.

Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

h. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle having.

- 看之書末曉得者 k’ön‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, when you have read it, you will know.

- 懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, when you understand it, you can explain it.

- 做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, having become a soldier, he has gone to fight.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ön‘ kíen‘ tsz san kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, seeing the hill was high, he went up. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ön‘, when you have written it, let me see it. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

i. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

- 勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ön‘ h’ih, I have not seen it.

- 勿曾來 veh zung lé, he has not come.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, he is not gone.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

- 昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, he went yesterday.

- 我後日去 ’ngú ’heu nyih k’í‘, I shall go on the day after to-morrow.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

- 我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, I shall not go.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of wish or must; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, I do not wish to go. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíen‘ tuh, it is not likely, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíen‘ tuh loh ’u, it is not likely to rain, or it will not rain.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

а. 當 tong in combination ought, receive: tong‘ regard as, to pawn. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

- 當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, regard him as a buffalo, and feed him on grass.

- 輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, what is light regard as heavy.

- 該當個 ké tong kú‘, ought.

- 勿敢當 veh ’kén tong, not dare receive it.

- 當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, am going to pawn clothes.

b. 打 ’táng, beat, set in operation.

- 打官司 ’táng kwén sz, go to law.

- 打官話 ’táng kwén wó‘, speak mandarin.

- 打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, make presents in hope of gain.

c. 待 té‘, to treat, wait.

- 待慢 té‘ man‘, treat contemptuously.

- 待人接物 té‘ niun tsih veh, treat persons respectfully.

- 待我來 té‘ ’ngú lé, wait till I come.

d. 銷 siau, consume, melt.

- 開銷 k’é siau, to expend.

- 銷烊 siau yáng, to melt.

e. 對 té‘ (d) correspond, opposite.

- 總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, nothing pleases him.

- 更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, still more wrong.

- 對面看起來 té‘ míen‘ k’ön‘ ’k’í lé, on the other hand you see.

f. 弄 lóng‘, meddle with, play with.

- 弄壞 lóng‘ wá‘, spoil.

- 作弄 tsoh lóng‘, deceive.

- 弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, make-believe becomes truth at last.

- 弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, amuse one’s-self with.

g. 費 fí‘, to expend.

- 費用 fí‘ yúng‘, expenses.

- 費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, may I trouble you.

h. 是 ’zz, it is, it is right, right.

- 是非 ’zz fí, right and wrong.

- 是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, very right.

- 嘸啥勿是 m sá veh ’zz, not at all untrue.

i. 話 wó‘, say (m. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, words.

- 話勿轉 wó‘ veh ’tsen, will not listen to words, or he keeps his words.

- 話定當 wó‘ ding‘ tong‘, said decisively.

- 啥話頭 sá‘ wó‘ deu, why use such words?

k. 可 ’k’ó, can, may.

- 可恨 ’k’ó hng‘, a thing to be hated, hateful.

- 實在可愛 seh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

l. 倒 ’tau, to overturn.

- 推倒 t’é ’tau, to turn over.

- 推倒傅來 tíen ’tau tsén lé, place upside down.

- 倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, and yet it is not.

m. 生 sáng, produce, be by nature, be born.

- 耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, has handsome ears.

- 生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ön‘, naturally handsome.

- 未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíen, before birth.

- 生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, bear fruit.

Section 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also those that express motion towards and substitution.

打 ’tang, from, by. | 對 té‘, to, towards.
從 zóng, from. | 到 tau‘, to arrive at.
拉 ’lá (m. 於), to. | 替 t’i‘, to, with, instead of.
搭 tah, with. | 忒 t’eh, to, for, with.
同 tóng, with. | 代 te‘, instead of.
聯 líen, ib. | 由 yeu, by.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, its m. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, certain.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, from. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from.

Obs. iv. 爲 wé‘, on account of, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líen, together with, is also used as a verb to connect. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líen tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, together with all his family.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

裏 ’lí, inside. | 前 zíen, before.
外 ngá‘, outside. | 後 ’heu, behind.
上 long‘, above, r. ’zong. | 下 ’hau, below.

Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, m. 中 chóng; 以 ’í, combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíen and 後 ’heu, in the sense of beside, before and after, or since; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í ’heu‘, after to-day. Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See Section 9.

Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, inside, is found in some compounds; e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. Of, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.

- 中國規矩 Tsúng kóh kwé ’kü, custom of China.

- 別人個事體 pih niun kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, what concerns others.

2. With, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 tan, and peh ’la or peh.

- 担篙子撐 tan kau ’tsz t’sáng, pole the boat with the bamboo.

3. Except is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.

- 除脫之儂個外頭就是我 dzû t’eh tsz nóng‘ kú‘ ngá‘ deu, dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, excepting you, there is only myself.

4. Beside is expressed by, 勿算 veh sön‘, at the end of the clause.

- 小末勿算共總有一百 ’siau meh veh sön‘, kóng‘ ’tsóng ’yeu ih páh, without counting the small, there are 100 in all.

5. Beyond takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.

- 廣東過去 ’Kwong tóng kú‘ k’i‘, beyond Canton.

6. Through or pass by is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.

- 路上經過去杭州 lú‘ long‘ kiung kú‘ Hong-tseu, go through Háng-cheú on the way.

7. Towards is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.

- 朝西轉灣朝南 zau sí ’tsén wan zau nén, go to the west, and turn to the south.

- 朝第邊走 zau dí‘ píen ’tseu, go this way.

- 望之第邊走 mong‘ tsz dí‘ píen ’tseu, ib.

- 對故塊走 té‘ kú‘ k’wé‘ ’tseu, go that way.

Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as regarding and respecting, are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the termination ing.

Section 9. On Adverbs.

Quality. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zén, hú, nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.

- 隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zén, not clearly.

- 興興然 h’iung h’iung zén, prosperously.

- 約約乎 yáh yáh hú, indistinctly.

- 幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí hú, very near.

- 稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, seldom met with.

- 險險能 ’h’ien ’h’ien nung, dangerously.

- 快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, quickly.

Obs. i. Zén and hú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 man‘ man‘ kiau‘, slowly.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zén, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, he walks eagerly.

260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

一直 ih dzuh, straight. | 一連 ih líen, joined together.
一氣 ih k’í‘, together. | 兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, separate.
一樣 ih yáng‘, the same. | 兩樣 ’liáng yáng‘, different.
一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto. | 一齊 ih dzí, together.
一切 ih t’sih, the whole. | 一淘 ih dau, ib.
一般 ih pén, the same.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, place them apart; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pén, treats him in the same way that he does his parents.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

- 早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, come early.

- 慢慢走 man‘ man‘ ’tseu, walk slowly.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 man‘ k’í‘, be slow to go, good bye, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, walk carefully, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

- 丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, sound of drum (’kú).

- 鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, ib. horse bells (ling).

- 帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, sound of shoes.

- 結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, calling of crows.

- 刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, wind blowing on reeds.

- 兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, noise of beating ice.

- 以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, braying of asses.

- 以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, creaking of doors.

- 胡盧胡盧 ú lú ú lú, sound of piping.

- 㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, sound of splitting bamboo as by fire.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

- 白白裏 páh báh ’lí, in vain; or, páh alone, e.g. páh sóng‘ t’éh.

- 特特裏 tuh duh ’lí, on purpose.

- 特意 tuh í‘, intentionally.

- 偷伴子 t’eu bén ’tsz, secretly.

- 假佯頭 ’ká yáng deu, falsely.

- 倖喜 yung‘ ’h’í, luckily.

- 造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, fortunately.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.

а. 更 kung‘, 還 wan, 又 i‘, 再 tse‘, signify more. They precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.

b. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 kiuh, 蠻 man, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun, very. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v. Art. 178.

c. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 kiuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form a superlative.

d. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of too; e.g. 忒大 t’uh dú‘, too large.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, the most beloved; 蠻會做 man wé‘ tsú‘, extremely well able to do it; 話煞 wó‘ sah, say decisively; 極有文理 kiuh ’yeu vun ’lí, has very (great) literary beauty; or it has extreme beauty.

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, very many.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, unbearably hot.

Correlative Adverbs. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.

那能 ná‘ nung, how? | 幾時 ’kí zz, when?
幾許 ’kí hó‘, how much? | 那裏 ’á ’lí, where?
„ how many? | 啥所 sá‘ sü, „
啥咾 sá‘ lau, why? Also 為啥 wé‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’yeu sá‘.

Obs. i. How may parts in ten? is 十分裏幾分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘. The answer might be 十分裏有三分 seh vun‘ ’lí ’yeu san vun‘, three tenths. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologically these words belong.

Obs. iii. How much more used as a logical particle, is expressed by 何况於 hú hwong‘ ü.

266. The adverbs corresponding to these, thus, however, whenever, wherever are expressed in various ways.

- 什蓋能 seh ké‘ nung, thus, seh ké‘, ib.

- 隨便那能 zûe bíen‘ ná‘ nung, which ever way you please.

- 勿論幾許 veh lun‘ ’kí hó‘, however much.

- 勿拘那裏 veh kü á ’lí, wherever you please.

- 要那能就那能 yau‘ ná‘ nung dzieu‘ ná‘ nung, however you want it, it shall be so.

- 我那能做勿要問 ’ngú ná‘ nung tsú‘ veh yau‘ mun‘, do not ask how I do it.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The answers to when? where? how many? will be found among the adverbs of time, place and number. Why? is answered by any direct statement, with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung wé‘.

Obs. ii. Dzûe bíen‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb combinations. They mean following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining.

Quantity. 267. The forms for about, enough, much, little, together, etc. are such as follow:—
a. About, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and yáh, teu, before.

- 約歸一百 yáh kwé ih páh, about a hundred.

- 約畧, 約摸 yáh liáh, yáh máh, both signify about.

- 約數幾許 yáh sú‘ ’kí ’hau, about how many?

- 里巴 ’lí pó, about a le.

- 尺巴 t’sák pó, about a foot.

- 步巴 pú pó, about a step.

- 寸巴 t’sun‘ pó, about an inch.

- 桶巴 ’tóng pó, a bucket-ful.

- 本巴 ’pun pó, about a volume.

- 半夜巴 pén‘ yá pó, about midnight.

- 半托巴 pén‘ t’ok pó, two arms length (t’ok, stretch out both arms).

- 頭二百 teu ní‘ páh, about two hundred.

- 約百錢 yák páh díen, about 100 cash.

- 約有二十 yáh yeu ní‘ seh, there are about 20.

- 一千光景 ih t’síen kwong ’kiung, about 1000.

Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, not far wrong, which is used in the same sense as the above words.

b. Enough and not enough are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh kûn zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.

- 彀哩, 干事者 keu‘ ’lí, kûn zz‘ ’tsé, enough.

- 勿彀, 勿干事 veh keu‘, veh kûn zz‘, not enough.

- 有哩 ’yeu ’lí, it is enough.

- 勿足 veh tsóh, not enough.

- 勿到三十 veh tau‘ san seh, not so many as 30.

- 勿滿三十 veh ’mén san seh, ib.

- 勿缺少個 veh k’iöh ’sau kú‘, not insufficient.

- 第個裏少一錢 ti‘ kú‘ ’lí ’sau ih dien, this is deficient one cash.

- 第籃桶子裡缺十隻 ti‘ lan kiöh ’tsz ’lí k’iöh seh tsáh, this basket of oranges in ten short.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and other languages are adverbs.

c. Much, more, many are all expressed by the adjective 多 tú. If tú precedes it is more (adv.): if it follows its word, it is much or many (adj.) Other words for more are 還 wan, 越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íen, ’tíen, etc.

- 多撥點 tú peh ’tíen, give more.

- 第袋米多二斤 ti‘ dé‘ ’mi tú ni‘ kiun, this bag of rice is two catties more (or over).

- 人多個 niun tú kú‘, the men are many.

- 越加勿好 yöh ká veh ’hau, much worse.

- 加點, 添點 ká ’tíen, t’íen ’tíen, give more.

- 一錢勿加 ih díen veh ká, I will not give one more cash.

- 勿罷一百 veh bá‘ ih páh, there are more than a hundred.

- 也勿罷 ’á veh bá‘, and more too.

- 銅錢還要 tóng díen wan yau‘, I want more cash.

Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, many. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to be adverbs are 越 still more, 也 too, and wan 還. Too is an adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a conjunction, and wan when it is not an adverb of time still, may often fairly be considered a conjunction.

d. Less, few are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word, and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, not necessary, less: ’yeu hien‘ k’ú‘, few, not much.

- 兩日勿消 ’liáng nyih veh siau, in less than 2 days.

- 少吃點 ’sau k’iuh ’tíen, eat less.

- 減脱點 ’kan t’eh ’tíen, take less, subtract a little.

- 勿能減少 veh nung ’kan ’sau, cannot take less.

- 人有限個 niun ’yeu híen‘ kú‘, of men there are few.

e. A little, any, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau wé, sü ’sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’ngan, ’tíen, etc.

- 畧須曉得 liák sü ’h’iau tuh, know it a little.

- 須為明白 sü wé ming báh, understand it a little.

- 須稍懂得 sü ’sau ’tóng tuh, ib.

- 些須加點 ’sí sü ká ’tíen, add a little.

- 稍為要個 ’sau wé yau‘ kú‘, I want it a little.

- 稍為便宜點 ’sau wé bien‘ ni ’tíen, a little cheaper.

- 脚有一眼酸 kiáh ’yeu ih ’ngan sûn, my feet are a little tired.

- 有點怕個 ’yeu ’tíen p’ó‘ kú‘, he is a little afraid.

- 一點點 ih ’tíen ’tíen, a very little.

- 有點𨅓跎 ’yeu ’tíen sá dú, I am a little tired.

- 有點會飛 ’yeu ’tíen wé‘ fí‘, can fly a little.

Obs. ’Tíen, ih ’ngan, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense a little; e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’ngan tú zia‘, a little better thank you; 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíen ’tseu, walk a little faster.

f. Not very, very much, too much are expressed by the derivative adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms seh fun, seh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘ vun‘.

- 勿大哩要 veh dá‘ ’lí yau‘, he does not much want it.

- 勿大哩多 veh dá‘ ’lí tú, not very many.

- 十分要 seh fun yau‘, wants it very much.

- 十二分好 seh ní‘ fun ’hau, very good.

g. Not at all, not in the least, are translated in several ways.

- 一無用頭 ih vú yúng‘ deu, of no use.

- 萬無好處 van‘ vú ’hau t’sû‘, of no use at all.

- 絲毫勿對 sz hau veh té‘, not in the least agreeing.

- 嘸啥蹉跎 m sá‘ sá dú, not at all tired.

- 一眼勿差 ih ’ngan veh t’só, just so, not at all wrong.

h. To altogether correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, kóng ’tsóng, tseu sun, ’lóng ’t’óng.

- 共總二百 kóng‘ ’tsóng ni‘ páh, in all two hundred.

- 週身幾許 tseu sun ’kí hau‘, in all how many?

- 盡行勿好 dzing‘ yung veh ’hau, altogether wrong.

- 一氣賣完 ih k’í‘ má‘ wén, altogether sold off.

- 攏統三萬 ’lóng ’t’óng san man‘, altogether 30,000.

i. Mostly, chiefly, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have been already partially illustrated.

- 大一半, tú‘ ih pén‘, the greater part.

- 大凡人勿懂 tá‘ van niun veh ’tóng, men mostly do not understand.

- 大槩百姓 tá ké pák sing‘, most people.

- 大凡人什蓋寫個多, ta‘ van niun seh ké ’sia kú‘ tú, most persons write it thus.

- 第能貸色是好個多 ti‘ nung hú‘ suh ’zz ’hau kú‘ tú, articles of this kind are mostly good.

- 吃鴉片烟個人勿牢寔個多 k’iuh á p’ien yen kú‘ niun veh lau zeh kú‘ tú, opium smokers are for the most part dishonest.

j. Half is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.

- 半死半活 pén‘ ’sí pén‘ weh, half dead half alive.

- 半假半眞 pén‘ ’ká pén‘ tsun, half false half true.

- 半推半愛 pén‘ t’é pén‘ é‘, refuse and yet wish for.

- 半呑半吐 pén‘ t’un pén‘ t’ú‘, cease from saying a thing when half through it.

Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, a quarter; 十分裏一分 seh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, one tenth, are much too long to enter into such groups.

k. only, alone are represented by tseh, tók, tan, tan‘ and forms into which they enter.

- 只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a little.

- 獨一干 tók ih kûn, only one.

- 獨干子 tók kûn ’tsz, alone.

- 勿但一個 veh dan‘ ih kú‘, not only one.

- 惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, only two men.

- 勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, not only one.

- 一干子 ih kûn ’tsz, alone.

- 單單一個 tan tan ih kú‘, a single one.

- 不過一個 pih (should be peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, only one.

- 獨獨哩我會做 tóh dóh ’lí ’ngú wé‘ tsú‘, only I can do it.

Obs. i. Tan, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó tan kú‘ ní song kú‘, is the flower single or double? Tóh and tan‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 tan‘ ’zz, tóh ’zz, but.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once, twice, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 m, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 m is properly a verb not to have.

- 嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, it is nothing.

- 嘸形嘸踪 m yung tsóng, there is no trace of him.

- 嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ wó‘ deu, there is nothing to say.

- 嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, having no grief or care.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

- 無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, having no riches or influence.

- 無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, having no relations.

- 無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’yá, having neither winter nor summer.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

- 勿會度日 veh wé‘ dú‘ nyih, I cannot live on.

- 勿三勿四 veh san veh sz‘, neither this nor that.

- 勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, he said nothing.

- 勿薦拉儂 veh tsíen‘ ’lá nóng‘, I shall not recommend him to you.

- 勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, it is not so (or veh alone).

271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

- 惟獨 ví dóh, only.

- 惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, only I.

- 不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, not one man only.

- 不知下落 peh tsz ’yá loh, do not know where he is.

- 眼不能見 ’ngan peh nung kíen‘, not to be seen.

- 非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, not only I.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

- 是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, it is so.

- 就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, ib.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

- 勿孬 veh k’ieu, that is good.

- 倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, but that is wrong.

- 勿差 veh t’só, you are right.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, seh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

- 眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, certainly there is none.

- 畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, certainly he has not come.

- 實在有個 seh zé ’yeu kú‘, there certainly is.

- 斷斷乎是個 tön‘ tön‘ ú ’zz kú‘, it certainly is so.

- 果然勿差 ’kú zen veh t’só, it is certainly right.

Obs. The interrogative final mó, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nön man mó, the boys are wild indeed.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity (must), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity (need not).

- 柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be fire wood.

- 銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’yeu, there must be silver.

- 總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, you must explain it.

- 必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, you must go.

- 板定要來者 ’pan ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, he must necessarily come.

- 板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, you must do it.

- 善终有善報 ’zén tsóng ’yeu ’zén pau‘, virtue will surely have a good reward.

- 做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, in transacting business you must apply the mind.

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

- 本來什蓋能 ’pun lé seh ké‘ nung, it is originally so.

- 本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, he originally wished to come himself.

- 自然者 zz‘ zén ’tsé, as might be expected.

- 自然而然 zz‘ zén rh zén, spontaneously.

- 原來嘸啥 niön lé m sá‘, it is really nothing.

- 本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé ú veh ’k’ung, by nature unwilling.

- 良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’yeu ku‘, conscience belongs to us by nature.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

- 並勿是 ping‘ veh ’zz, certainly it is not.

- 决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, it ought surely not to be done.

- 切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, you certainly may not.

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

- 勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, you need not go.

- 勿必多 veh pih tú, do not need many.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, do not go; 去末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, go has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

- 豈勿是頂好 ’k’i veh ’zz ’ting ’hau, how is it not admirable.

- 難道儂勿曉得我 nan dau‘ nóng‘ veh ’h’iau tuh ’ngú, it can hardly be that you do not know me.

- 有啥勿識字 ’yeu sá‘ veh suh zz‘, why should I not know how to read.

Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? 難道我哄騙儂否 nan dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ien‘ nóng‘ ’vá, could I deceive you?

Adverbs of place. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus here and there, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns tí‘, kú‘, í.

- 第塊, 第搭, 第頭, tí‘ k’wé‘, tí‘ tah, tí‘ deu, here.

- 故塊, 故搭, 故頭, kú‘ k’wé‘, kú‘ tah, kú‘ deu, there.

- 伊塊, 伊搭, 伊頭, í k’wé‘, í tah, í deu, there.

Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 堂 tong, also forms tí‘ dong, here, etc.

280. On this, and on that side are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míen‘, face, and píen, side.

- 第面, 第邊, tí‘ míen‘, tí‘ píen, on this side.

- 第半爿, tí‘ pén‘ ban, ib.

- 故面, 故邊, kú‘ míen‘, kú‘ píen, on that side.

- 故半爿, 伊半爿, kú‘ pén‘ ban, í pén‘ ban, ib.

- 伊面, 伊邊, í míen‘, í píen, ib.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

- 上面, 上頭 ’zong míen‘, ’zong deu, above.

- 上邊, 上半爿 ’zong píen, ’zong pén‘ ban, on the upper side.

- 上首, 上肩, 上底頭 ’zong ’seu, ’zong kíen, ’zong ’tí deu, on the upper side.

- 前面, 前頭, 前底 zíen míen‘, zíen deu, zíen ’tí, before.

- 後面, 後頭, 後首 ’heu míen‘, ’heu deu, ’heu ’seu, behind.

- 後底, 後底頭 ’heu ’tí, ’heu ’tí deu, behind.

- 裏頭, 裏厮, 裏面 ’lí deu, ’lí sz, ’lí míen‘, inside.

- 裏向, 裏邊 ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí píen, ib.

- 裏半爿 ’lí pén‘ ban, ib.

Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense below. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of outside.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú yeu‘, right and left, form some groups.

- 右邊, 右半爿, yeu‘ píen, yeu‘ pén‘ ban, on the right-hand.

- 左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píen, tsí‘ pén‘ ban, on the left-hand.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

- 週圍, 四週圍, tseu wé, sz‘ tseu wé, all round.

- 當中 tong tsóng, in the middle.

- 空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.

- 橫肚裏 wáng ’tú ’lí, obliquely.

- 射角 dzák kok, obliquely.

- 對直 té‘ dzuh, straight before.

- 那裏那裏堂 ’á ’lí, ’á ’lí dong, where?

- 各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, everywhere.

- 各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, everywhere.

284. Wáng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally across and perpendicularly.

- 橫做𥪡做 wáng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, do this and that.

- 橫勿是𥪡勿是 wáng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, wrong in this and in that.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs in and out, up and down, here and there, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

- 飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, fly in and out.

- 跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’au, jump up and down.

- 搖來搖去 yau lé yau k’í‘, row about.

Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

- 曾 zung, already; 勿曾 veh zung, not yet.

- 向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto; (it embraces the whole of the past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ í‘, ib.

- 已 ’í, already; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, already.

- 昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, yesterday.

- 先 síen, first; 第個先要做 tí‘ kú‘ síen yau‘ tsú‘, this must be done first.

- 暴 pau‘, at first; e.g. 暴時 pau‘ zz, at first; 暴時間 pau‘ zz kan, ib.

- 預 ü‘, beforehand; 預先防備 ü‘ síen bong bé‘, guard against beforehand. (防 guard against; m. fang; s.r. vong).

- 初 t’sú, at first, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.

- 今 kiun, now; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 híen‘ kiun, now; 今朝 kiun tsau, to-day; 今曰 kiun nyih, ib.; 今月 kiun niöh, this month; 今年 kiun níen, this year.

- 難 nan, now; 難故歇 nan kú‘ h’ih, at the present moment; 難朝後 nan dzau ’eu, from this time forward; 難下來 nan ’au lé, ib.; 難末 nan meh, then.

- 正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) just; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, just while; 貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, just at the moment.

- 現 híen‘ now; 現在 híen‘ dzé‘, now; 現時 híen‘ zz, ib.

- 暫 dzan‘, temporarily; e.g. 暫時 dzan‘ zz, for a short time; 暫為 dzan‘ we‘, ib.

- 將 tsiáng, about to be; 將來 tsiáng lé, it will happen that.

- 卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, just; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, ib. 卽鉛 tsih k’an, ib.

- 再 tsé‘, again; 再會 tsé‘ wé‘, we shall meet again.

- 鉛 k’an just; 鉛鉛 k’an k’an ib.; 鉛起始 k’an ’k‘í ’sz, at the beginning.

- 又 í‘, 又來者 í‘ lé ’tsé, come again.

- 還 wan, still; 還要來 wan yau‘ lé, come again.

- 就 dzieu‘, immediately; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsén lé, return directly 就此 dzieu‘ ’t’sz, immediately.

- 一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ the moment that; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘ kau‘, the moment he went to sleep he awoke.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, nan, tsiáng, tsé‘, í‘, wan, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, not yet, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except pau‘, nan, and k’an.

287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, tí‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, a short time, to form adverbs of time.

- 第歇故歇 tí‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, at this moment.

- 故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, at that time.

- 伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, ib.

- 一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, all at once.

- 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately.

- 立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, ib.

- 立時三刻 lih zz san k’uh, ib.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, after a little time; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, ib.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

a. 明 ming, bright. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow; 明日 ming nyih, ib.; 明天 ming t’íen, ib.; 明年 ming níen, next year.

b. 早 ’tsau, early; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, early; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, early.

c. 古 ’kú ancient. 古時間 ’kú zz kan, in ancient times; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, ib.; 古來 ’kú lé, from ancient times.

d. 新 sing, new. 新年 sing níen, new year; 從新 dzóng sing, afresh.

e. 近 ’kiun, near. 近年 ’kiun níen, of late years; 近時 ’kiun zz, lately; 近來 ’kiun lé, ib. 近今 ’kiun kiun, ib. 近世 ’kiun sz‘, in modern times.

f. 舊 ’kieu, old. 舊年 ’kieu níen, last year; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, as before; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, ib. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, ib.

g. 常 dzáng, constant. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, always; 常時 dzáng zz, sometimes; 日常 nyih dzáng, daily.

h. 前 zíen, former. 前日子 zíen nyih ’tsz, day before yesterday; 目前 móh zíen, now. 前年 zíen níen, year before last. 從前 dzóng zíen, formerly. 以前 ’í zíen, before; 前代 zíen dé‘, the former dynasty. 前朝 zíen zau, ib.; 前世 zíen sz‘, in a former life.

i. 後 ’heu, after. 後來 ’heu lé, 以後 ’í heu‘, after; 後月 ’heu niöh, next month; 後年 ’heu níen, year after next; 後日 ’heu nyih, day after to-morrow.

j. 下 ’hau, 目下 móh ’hau, at present.

k. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, daily.

Obs. Zien deu, ’heu deu, before, after, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

- 自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, from ancient times till now.

- 周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, from the Cheú dynasty till now.

- 歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, after two days.

- 隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níen, after several tens of years.

- 再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, after another month.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

- 做慣 tsok (kwan‘) kûn‘, constantly (in the habit of).

- 只管 tseh ’kwén, ib. or my only concern is, etc. (m.)

- 冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, suddenly.

- 難板 nan ’pan, seldom (difficult to fix).

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

- 多 tá, several; 多歇 tá h’ih, after a little time; 多日 tá nyih, after some days; 多年 tá níen, after some years; 多時 tá zz, a considerable time (多 tú in this sense is generally pronounced tá.)

- 幾 ’kí, several; 連幾日 líen ’kí nyih, during several days.

- 多 tú, many; 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually.

- 逐 dzóh, each; 日逐 nyih dzóh, daily; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíen dzók ’tíen kau, gradually growing higher.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

- 日日 nyih nyih, daily.

- 年年 níen níen, yearly.

- 時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, constantly.

- 歇歇 h’ih h’ih, ib.

- 出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pien‘, wé wé pien‘, constantly changing.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, day by day corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year, one after another are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, pass (English adverb after).

- 一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, age after age.

294. The particles and, after, by, in one by one, two and two, in rows, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

- 一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, one after another they went out.

- 要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih hong ih hong kú‘, plant them in rows.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dzan‘ ih dzan‘, stand waiting a little; 研一研 níen ih níen, rub a little ink; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, cool it a little; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, stir it a little; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, wash it (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, wash it (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíen‘ kú‘ bíen‘ t’sing ’song, I wish to distinguish clearly; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’ngan, ih ’tíen, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

- 一眼高一眼 ih ’ngan kau ih ’ngan, to become gradually higher.

- 一點大一點 ih ’tíen dú‘ ih ’tíen, grow gradually greater.

- 一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, greater every moment.

- 一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, grow less every day.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

- 覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, when you awake.

- 出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz heu‘, when on a journey.

297. Never, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.

- 一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung tók sû, I have never gone to school.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun what? thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

- 昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, why (thinking of what) did you not come yesterday?.

- 聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, how (having heard what) do you know?

Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 siáng‘, like, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense like.

- 恰像 hah ziáng‘, 恰替 hah t’í‘, like.

- 好像 hau ziáng‘, very like.

- 恰得小囝能個 hah tuh ’siau nön nung kú‘, like a child.

- 倒像 ’tau ziáng‘, or rather it is like.

Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of like; 一樣 ih yáng‘, 一般 ih pén, are also employed in the sense in the same manner.

300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 tá‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually, one to another, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 like one another.

Obs. Together with, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, go with me into the city. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

- 自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, at ease.

- 活的活的 weh tih weh tih, constantly moving.

- 什蓋什蓋 seh ké‘ seh ké‘, thus.

- 適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, comfortably.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

- 加 ká, add, forms yöh ká, 越加; í‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká, 更加 still more.

- 發 fah, produce, forms 越發 yöh fah; still more.

- 隨 zûe, follow, 隨時 zûe zz, always; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, everywhere.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

- 並且勿是 ping‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, it certainly is not so.

- 如同皇帝能 zû dóng wong tí‘ nung, like the emperor.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

Section 10. Conjunctions.

305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—

- a. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’á, and; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. and, further.

- b. Adversatives 但 dan‘. Forms like 但是 dan‘ ’zz 獨是 tóh ’zz, but, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.

- c. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), therefore.

- d. Causal. 因 yung, 為 wé‘, because.

- e. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.

- f. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zén, 或 wóh, 越 yöh, 也 ’á, 又 i‘.

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.

Connectives. 306. The particle that connects words like the English and, is 咾 lau.

- 進咾出 tsing‘ lau t’seh, going in and out.

- 中牲咾窵咾魚 tsóng sáng lau ’tiau lau ng, beasts, bird, and fishes.

Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, with, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, you and I; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, the sun and moon.

307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’á and 還 wan. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.

- 南京去過之末, 我也要上北京去 Nén kiung k’í‘ kú‘ tsz meh, ’ngú ’á yau‘ ’zong Poh kiung k’í‘, after going to Nanking, I also wish to go to Peking.

- 明朝我也要歸去 ming tsau ’ngú ’á yau‘ kü k’í‘, to-morrow, I wish to go home. (introductory).

- 也要買否 ’á yau‘ ’má ’vá, do you wish to buy?

Obs. i. If the ’á or wan is emphasized it means also. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niön, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, it is I.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, and further 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, and what is still more.

- 今朝路勿好跑個而且我脚跑勿動 kiun tsau lú‘ veh ’hau pau‘ kú‘, rh ’t’siá ’ngú kiáh pau‘ veh ’dóng, it is bad walking to-day, and besides I am lame.

- 有個朋友話昨日來, 尙且勿曾來 ’yeu kú‘ báng ’yeu wó‘ zóh nyih lé, zong‘ ’t’siá veh zung lé, a friend told me he would come yesterday, and still he has not yet come. (adverbial).

- 前頭借過歇銅錢, 而且勿曾還哩, 難又要借否 zien deu tsiá‘ kú‘ h’ih dóng díen, rh ’t’siá veh zung wan ’lí, nan í‘ yau‘ tsiá‘ ’vá, you borrowed money before, and further you have not returned it, and do you wish to borrow again? (adverbial).

- 水深而且渾 ’sz sun rh ’t’siá wun, the water is deep and also muddy.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, again, to proceed; 還有 wan ’yeu, there is another thing; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!

- 托儂買蒔菇, 再者呌船一隻 t’oh nóng‘ ’má zz kú, tsé‘ ’tsé kiau‘ zén ih tsáh, I commission you to buy fruit, and also to call a boat.

- 還有一樣事體 wan ’yeu ih yáng‘ zz‘ ’t’i, there is another thing I have to say.

Adversatives. 310. But is represented by 但 tan‘ 但是 tan‘ ’zz, 獨是 tóh (g) ’zz; however is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.

- 說話好聽, 但是道理嘸啥好 seh wó ’hau t’ing, tan‘ ’zz ’tau ’lí m sá‘ ’hau, his words are plausible but his doctrine bad.

- 現在還勿起到底要還儂個 híen‘ zé wan veh ’k’í tau‘ ’tí yau‘ wan nóng‘ kú‘, I cannot pay you now, but I intend to do so in the end. (adverbial).

Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes preserves its etymological meaning in the end, as in the example given.

311. Lest is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕 tseh p’ó‘, I am only afraid that, has come to mean I suppose that.

- 要打伊隻夠常怕要咬 yau‘ ’táng í tsáh ’keu dzáng p’ó‘ yau‘ ’ngau, beat that dog lest he should bite.

- 伊個話頭只怕虛個 í kú‘ ’wó‘ deu tseh p’ó‘ h’ü kú‘, that account is I suppose false. (or 恐怕 ’k’úng p’ó‘).

Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is I fear that; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung yong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘ t’ong‘ wá‘ tsz ’seu, the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will burn your hand.

312. The conjunctional phrases and yet, on the other hand, are expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píen, perversely.

- 第個事體呌儂做, 儂倒撥拉別人做 tí kú‘ zz ’t’í kau‘ nóng‘ tsú‘, nóng‘ ’tau peh ’la bih niun tsú‘, I called you to do this, and yet you have given it to some one else to do.

- 打伊倒勿痛 ’táng i ’tau veh t’óng‘, he is beaten and yet feels no pain.

- 勸儂好偏勿肯好 k’iön‘ nóng‘ ’hau p’íen veh ’k’ung ’hau, when exhorted to be good, you on the other hand will not.

313. Such conjunctional phrases as it would be better to, are represented by 勿如 veh zû, not so good as, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, I would rather, 勿比 veh ’pí, it cannot be compared with.

- 勿如轉去更好 veh zû ’tsén k’í‘ kung‘ ’hau, it would be better to go back.

- 讀勿熟勿比再讀 tóh veh zóh veh ’pí tsé‘ dóh, not having learned it perfectly, it would be better to study it again.

- 惡事𡨴可死勿做 oh zz‘ niung ’k’ó ’sí veh tsú‘, I would rather die than do what is wrong.

Illative or Transitional Conjunctions. 314. Therefore is represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh lau.

- 心裏勿忘記儂故此又來 sing ’lí veh mong‘ kí‘ nóng‘, kú‘ ’t’sz í‘ lé, I have not forgotten you, and therefore have come again.

315. Then is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a logical consequence, and by 難末 nan meh, when the transition is one of time.

- 撥勒儂勿要, 𡀽末要啥 peh ’lá nóng‘ veh yau‘, ké‘ meh yau‘ sá‘, I give it and you do not want it, then what do you want?

- 懂之道理難末好者 ’tóng tsz ’dau ’lí nan meh ’hau ’tsé, the doctrine being understood, then all is well.

Obs. Nan meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, consequently.

Causal Conjunctions. 316. 因爲 yung wé‘, 爲 wé‘ and 爲之 wé‘ tsz correspond to our word because.

Conditional particles. 317. 末 meh, if, is placed at the end of the clause.

- 賤末要買, 貴末勿要買 kiáng (zíen‘) meh yau‘ ’má, kü‘ meh veh yau‘ ’má, if it is cheap buy it, but not if it is dear.

318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zén, 倘或 ’t’ong wóh, 倘使 ’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zén, are used in the sense of if: 旣然 kí‘ zén is if it was already so.

- 若使勿看見末, 就歸來 zák sz‘ veh k’ön‘ kíen‘ meh, dzieu‘ kü lé, if you do not see him, return at once.

Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with which they combine.

319. Even if is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’á p’ó‘ 那裏怕 ’á ’lí p’ó‘.

- 就是其哭, 也勿要憑其 dzieu‘ ’zz gí k’óh, ’á veh yau‘ bing gí, even if he cries, do not yield to him.

- 也怕嘸末銅錢, 總勿要去偷人家 ’á p’ó‘ m meh dóng díen, ’tsóng veh yau‘ k’í‘ t’eu niun ká, even if you have no money, you must not steal from others.

320. If, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zén, or 再勿然 tsé‘ veh zén, should it not be so.

- 快點撥勒我, 勿然我要去者 k’wá ’tíen peh ’lá ’ngú, veh zén ’ngú yau‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, If you do not give it me quickly, I shall go.

- 再勿然我自家去 tsé‘ veh zen ’ngú zz‘ ká k’í‘, if is so, I shall go myself.

Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the if, for 然 zén is an adverb so. In fact, the if is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative.

321. The conjunctional phrases suppose that, for instance, for example, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 yeu zû, etc.

- 比方死之末那能 ’pí fong ’sí tsz meh ná‘ nung, if you should die, what then?

- 猶之乎 yeu tsz hú, just as if.

- 猶如 yeu zû, ib.

Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh yong‘, ’ngan tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him.

Antithetical Conjunctions. 322. Clauses with the particles although, yet, are formed by 雖然 sûe zén and 然而 zén rh, etc.

- 雖然巧個, 然而勿牢實個 sûe zén ’k’iau kú‘, zén rh veh lau zeh kú‘, although clever, he is not trustworthy.

- 好是好個, 到底本事平常 ’hau ’zz ’hau kú‘ tau‘ ’tí ’pun zz‘ bing dzáng, he is well disposed, but his abilities are not great.

- 雖然路遠, 究竟走得到 sûe zén lú‘ ’yön, kieu‘ kiung‘ ’tseu tuh tau‘, although it is a long way, yet I can walk it.

Obs. Although is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. Either,—or are expressed by 或者 wóh ’tsé, 或者 wóh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz — dzieu‘ ’zz.

- 勿是打贏, 就是打敗 veh ’zz ’táng yung, dzieu‘ ’zz ’táng bá‘, you must either conquer, or be vanquished.

- 或在東, 或在西 wóh ’dzé tóng, wóh ’dzé sí, it is either east or west.

- 勿是儂, 就是儂個兄弟 veh ’zz nóng‘, dzieu‘ ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ h’iung dí‘, it is either you or your brother.

- 或是姓張, 或是姓李 wóh ’zz sing‘ tsáng, wóh ’zz sing‘ lí, it must be some one named Cháng or Lí.

324. Neither,—nor are represented both by 也—也 ’á—’á, and by 又—又 í‘—í‘, with a negative.

- 也勿會飛, 也勿會走 ’á veh wé‘ fí, ’á veh wé‘ ’tseu. he can neither fly nor walk.

- 口也勿開, 手也勿動 ’k’eu ’á veh k’é, ’seu ’á veh ’dóng, he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands.

- 又勿賤, 又勿貴 í‘ veh giáng, í‘ veh kü‘, it is neither cheap nor dear.

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with or, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 wan ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’á alone is used.

- 明朝要去呢, 還是要待兩日 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘ ní, wan ’zz yau‘ dé‘ ’liáng nyih, will you go to-morrow, or wait for a few days? (See also Art. 251).

326. Because,—therefore are expressed by 因爲 yung wé‘, or 爲之 wé‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.

- 因爲勿曾熟哩, 所以還要燒 yung wé‘ veh zung zóh ’lí, ’sú ’í wan yau‘ sau, since it is not yet well done, you must boil it longer.

- 爲之儂勿快活咾, 故此我勿來 wé‘ tsz nóng‘ veh k’á‘ weh lau, kú‘ ’t’sz ’ngú veh lé, because you were displeased, I did not come again.

327. Why—? because—are expressed by any of the adverb forms for why? and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.

- 爲啥要眠檣因爲要過橋拉 wé‘ sá‘ yau‘ míen dziáng? yung wé‘ yau‘ kú‘ giau ’lá, why do you take down the mast? because there is a bridge to pass.

328. On the one hand, on the other hand, are expressed by ih míen‘ or ih deu repeated.

- 一面近河咾要沉殺, 一面兵過來咾要嚇昏 ih míen‘ ’giun hú lau yau zung sah, ih míen‘ ping kú‘ lé lau yau‘ háh hwun, on the one side it is near the river, and they will be drowned, on the other side soldiers are coming who fill them with fear.

- 一半哭一半笑 ih pén‘ k’oh, ih pén‘ siau‘, partly crying and partly laughing.

- 一頭走一頭想 ih deu ’tseu, ih deu ’siáng, while he walks he thinks.

329. Not only—but even,— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨 ví tók, not only, or 勿但不過 veh dan‘ peh kú‘ in the first clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líen or 連搭 líen tah, in the second.

- 勿獨之朋友什蓋, 就是陌生人也什蓋 veh dók tsz páng ’yeu seh ké‘, dzieu‘ ’zz mák sáng niun ’á zeh ké‘, it is not only friends that are so, but even strangers too.

- 勿獨自家, 連搭子孫 veh dók zz‘ ká, líen tah ’tsz sun, not only himself, but even his children also.

- 非獨逆風, 連水也逆個 fí dók niuk fóng, líen ’sz ’á niuk kú‘, not only is the wind contrary, but the tide is also against us.

330. The—the— are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau yöh ’hau, the earlier the better.

Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, the more, in each clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.

331. When the supplementary clause is, how much more, 何况于 hú hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ ú, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are employed.

- 天好勿看見, 而况雨落 t’íen ’hau veh k’ön‘ kíen’, hú hwong’ ’ü loh, when the weather is fine you cannot see it, how much more when it rains.

- 小個做勿來, 况且大個 ’siau kú‘ tsú‘ veh lé, hwong‘ ’t’siá dú‘ kú‘, if you cannot do a little thing, how much more impossible for you to do a greater.

- 自家尙且勿會做, 何况于別人 zz ká zang‘ ’t’siá veh wé tsú‘, hú hwong‘ ü bih niun, since you cannot do it yourself, much more cannot others do it.

Section 11. Expletives and Interjections.

332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘, tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.

a. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.

- 好個 好拉個 ’hau kú‘, ’hau ’lá kú‘, it is good, well.

- 勿能做個 veh nung tsú‘ kú‘, or veh nung kú‘ tsú‘, I cannot do it.

b. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.

- 前年做之宰相者 zíen níen tsú‘ tsz tsé‘ siáng‘ ’tsé, the year before last, he was prime minister.

- 本地白也會話之 ’pun dí‘ pah ’á wé‘ wó‘ tsz, he can speak in the dialect of this place.

- 明朝要寫好之末者 ming tsau yau‘ ’siá ’hau tsz meh ’tsé, finish writing it to-morrow.

- 做之十年官咾告老者 tsú‘ tsz zeh níen kwén lau kau‘ ’lau ’tsé, after having been in office for ten years, he retired on the plea of old age.

c. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.

- 做拉者, 好者 tsú‘ ’lá ’tsé, ’hau ’tsé, it is done, it is right.

- 去拉個者 k’í‘ ’lá kú‘ ’tsé, he is gone.

- 吾拉做者 ngú ’lá tsú‘ ’tsé, I am doing it.

d. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).

- 好哩, 勿好拉哩, 好個哩 ’hau ’lí, veh ’hau ’lá ’lí, ’hau kú‘ ’lí, good, it is not well, it is well.

e. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.

- 已經話拉者咾, 有啥再話 ’í kiung wó‘ ’lá ’tsé lau, ’yeu sá‘ tsé‘ wó‘, I have said it, and why should I say it again.

Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.

讀者𫡄 tók ’tsé ná, I am reading.

333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, man‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and man‘.

a. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nian.

- 做呢勿做 tsú‘ ní veh tsú‘, will you do it or not?

- 好勿好呢 ’hau veh ’hau ní, is it right or not?

- 勿懂呢啥 veh ’tóng ní sa‘, do you not understand?

- 物事忒貴個呢 meh zz‘ tuh kü‘ kú‘ ní, are the things too dear?

b. 否 ’vá and 蠻 man‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.

- 飯用蠻 van‘ yúng‘ man‘, have you dined?

- 還要再來否 wan yau‘ tsé‘ lé‘ vá, shall you come again?

- 曉得否 ’h’iau tuh ’vá, do you understand?

c. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).

- 第個稀奇個物事有磨 tí‘ kú‘ h’í gí kú‘ meh zz‘ ’yeu mó, is there this remarkable thing?

- 倒勿是十分壞良心麽 ’tau veh ’zz seh vun wá‘ liáng sing mó? is it not most wilfully unconscionable!

- 是否, 是麽 ’zz ’vá, ’zz mó, is it so? indeed it is?

- 第個價錢大麽 tí‘ kú‘ ká‘ díen dú‘ mó, the price of this is great indeed (亦通嗎).

334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, how? 幾 ’kí, how many? with 那 ’ná, forming ’á ’lí, 那裏 where? which? and 那能 ’ná nung, how? have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called are such as—

- 噯 é, ah! 噯動勿得個 é ’tóng veh tuh kú‘, ah! you must not do such a thing.

- 呔 t’é, ho! 呸 ’p’é, it is bad.

- 阿唷 ah yóh, alas! oh!

- 㕭 au‘, indicates assent, yes, or I understand. In the first tone, it calls attention or conveys a warning, 當心㕭 tong sing au, be careful and mind what I say.

- 呀 á, 喲 yá, as in 是呀 ’zz á, 是喲 ’zz yáh, it is so.

- 哇 vá, is it not so? 哈 hé, ah!

PART III.
ON SYNTAX.

Section 1. On Government.

336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms will be presented in subsequent sections.

A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.

- 牛個角比之鹿個角短 nieu kú‘ koh ’pí tsz lók kú‘ koh ’tön, the horns of oxen are short compared with those of deer.

- 羊咾牛個皮有多許用頭拉 yáng lau nieu kú‘ bí ’yeu tú hau‘ yúng‘ deu ’lá, the skin of sheep and oxen has many uses.

- 鷄個聲氣最响 kí kú‘ sáng k’í‘ tsûe‘ ’h’iáng, the cock crows very loud.

Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part.

Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle of is employed; e.g. affairs of the nation is in our dialect, 國家個事體 kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’s, the order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. the emperor’s palace, 皇帝個宮殿 wong tí‘ kú‘ kóng díen‘.

Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘ lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Yan fóng wong tí‘, foreigners must come and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih h’iang‘ m meh h’iung wong‘ zun kwong, it has never had a time of prosperity.

337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.

- 大地方 tú‘ tí‘ fong, a large place.

- 西國 sí kóh, western nations.

- 黑天 huk tíen, black sky.

- 晒拉旺日頭裏 só ’lá yong‘ nyih deu ’lí, dry it in the hot sun.

- 利害個物事 lí‘ hé kú‘ meh zz‘, a dangerous thing.

Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.) appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary, e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, a large house; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih báh ’mó, four white horses.

338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.

- 生火 sáng ’hú, light a fire.

- 染布 ’níen pú‘, dye cloth.

- 買紅紙頭做帖子, ’má hóng ’tsz deu tsú‘ t’ih ’tsz, buy red paper to make cards.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 nan k’é hwó ’tsé, now the flowers open (lit. open the flowers); 落雨 loh ’ü, it rains (lit. falls rain).

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.

- 忒認眞 t’uh niung‘ tsun, unnecessarily industrious.

- 廟裏最興 miau‘ ’lí tsûe‘ h’iung‘, in the temple, it is most crowded.

- 此地寫 ’t’sz dí‘ ’siá, write it here.

- 歇兩日再會 h’ih ’liáng nyih tsé‘ wé‘. after a few days, we shall meet again.

- 又是一氣 í ’zz ih k’í‘, that is a different set.

Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’kiun sah, very near, 好極 ’hau giuh, very good, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning being at or in, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’au, not down in the country.

Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, come to me; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’yeu, where you come from, there are none. See also Art. 197.

Section 2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech.

341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which adjectives become substantives.

а. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.

- 心裏向個勿好, 總要改正 sing ’lí h’iáng‘ kú‘ veh ’hau, ’tsóng yau‘ ’ké tsung‘, the evil of the heart must be rectified.

- 泰山個高量勿出 t’é‘ san kú‘ kau liáng veh t’seh, the height of T’ai-shan cannot be measured.

- 房間個闊狹勿清爽 vong kan kú‘ k’weh hah veh t’sing ’song, the width of the room, I do not know.

- 吾個相好死者 ngú kú‘ siáng ’hau ’sí ’tsé, my friend is dead.

Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.

Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.

b. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.

- 學好 hoh ’hau, to grow good (to learn good).

- 講和 ’kong hú, treat for peace.

- 學壞 hoh wá‘, to grow bad.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, make larger; 開闊 k’é k’weh, to extend in width (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.

- 勿論大咾小, 全是一樣個 veh lun‘ dú‘ lau ’siau, dzén ’zz ih yáng‘ kú‘, without taking account of the great and the small, all are the same.

- 勿要話別人個長短 veh yau‘ wó‘ bih niun kú‘ dzáng ’tön, do not speak of the faults of others.
Obs. 短處 ’tön t’sû‘ is also used for faults.

- 第條河開多少闊 tí‘ diau hú k’é tú ’sau k’weh, how wide is this river?

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives how much? how many? preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síen, how much depth is there? or how deep is it? 多少深 tú ’sau sun ib.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, I do not know how high it is.

c. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.

濃黑 nióng huh, deep black. | 淡紅 ’tan hóng, light red.
老黃 ’láu wong, faded yellow. | 嫩黃 nung‘ wong, fresh yellow.
重藍 ’dzóng lan, deep blue. | 淺藍 ’t’síen lan, light blue.

Verb as Substantive. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.

a. The verb as subject of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).

- 活命難 weh ming‘ nan, it is hard (predic.) to live. (subj.）

- 會得勝總好個 wé‘ tuk sung‘ ’tsóng ’hau kú‘, to be able to conquer must be a good thing.

- 行篷船走得快個 háng bóng, zén ’tseu tuk k’wá‘ kú‘, by using a sail, the boat will go quickly.

- 國度亂做生意勿便當個 kóh dú‘ lön‘ tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh bíen‘ tong‘ kú‘, the country is disturbed and in consequence, it is hard (pred.) to carry on trade. (subj.)

- 兵勿好咾, 打仗勿見得成功 ping veh ’hau lau, ’t’áng tsáng‘ veh kíen‘ tuh zung kóng‘, the soldiers are bad, and consequently fighting (subj.) is not likely to be successful. (pred.)

b. The verb as subject, with a noun as attribute (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).

- 種田個家生有鋤頭鐵咾還有多許 tsóng‘ díen kú‘ ká sáng ’yeu zz deu, t’ih tah lau, wan ’yeu tú hó‘, the implements of husbandry are the spade, the spiked hoe, and such like (arma colendi).

- 嘸沒反个意思 m meh ’fan kú‘ í‘ sz‘, he has not the intention of rebelling (consilium deficiendi).

- 敎書个本事勿有 kau‘ sû kú‘ ’pun zz‘ veh ’yeu, the ability to instruct, he does not possess.

c. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.

- 我現在拉做 ’ngú híen‘ dzé‘ ’lá tsú‘, I am now doing it.

- 勒拉吃茶 leh ’lá k’iuh dzó, drinking tea (inter bibendum).

- 勒裏打算 leh ’lí ’táng sön‘, he is considering (inter putandum).

- 做官裏向也有辛苦 tsú‘ kwén ’lí h’iáng‘ ’á ’yeu sing ’k’ú, in the office of mandarin, there is much care and anxiety (in magistrato gerendo).

- 寫字裏向也有法則 ’siá zz‘ ’lí hiáng‘ ’á ’yeu fah tsuh, in writing, there is a method.

d. The verb as regimen of another verb.

- 斷絕往來 ’tön dzih ’wong lé, cease to have communications.

- 嘸啥做 m sá‘ tsú‘, I have nothing to do.

- 勿曾有啥爭論 veh zung ’yeu sá‘ tsáng lun‘, there has not been any quarreling.

- 我勿想去 ’ngú veh ’siáng k’í‘, I do not think of going.

- 勿要討我厭 veh yau‘ ’t’au ’ngú yíen‘, do not make me displeased.

e. The verb as the instrument of effecting an action.

- 問之咾曉得 mun‘ tsz lau ’h’iau tuh, you would know by asking.

- 開之砲咾攻破城頭 k’é tsz p’au‘ lau kóng p’ú‘ zung deu, he made a breach in the wall by firing cannon.

- 勿留心咾忘記脱者 veh lieu sing lau mong‘ ki‘ t’eh ’tsé, though not attending to it, I have forgotten it.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zén h’iau‘ wé‘ síen, of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, a filial son, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, to reverence parents. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, all the people came as if they were his sons, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.

Verb as Adjective. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

- 可惡 ’k’ó ú‘, to be hated, or hateful.

- 可殺 ’k’ó sah, ought to be killed.

- 好笑 ’hau siau‘, laughable, fit to be laughed at.

- 好種个 ’hau tsóng‘ kú‘, capable of cultivation.

Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the permissive mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.

- 耐勿過 né‘ veh kú‘, unbearable.

- 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, unutterable.

- 數勿明白 sú‘ veh ming báh, incalculable.

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, it is done badly；寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, it is written exactly to the purpose; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, the swallow flies very swiftly; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, he wears his hat properly.

345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 yeu, 到 tau‘, 連 líen, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau. Examples of both uses are given.

- 由儂末哉 yeu nóng‘ meh tsé‘, it will be as you decide.

- 由那裏一條路 yeu ’á ’lí ih diau lú‘, by which way?

- 字眼要連下來 zz‘ ’ngan yau‘ líen ’au lé, words and expressions should be connected.

- 紙頭連筆全勿有 ’tsz deu líen pih dzén veh ’yeu, paper and pencil are both wanting.

Adverb as Substantive. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.

- 此地個百姓 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ pák sing‘, people of this place.

- 什蓋能個人 seh ké‘ nung kú‘ niun, people of that sort.

- 明朝個事體測度勿出 ming tsau kú‘ zz‘ ’t’i t’suh doh veh t’seh, the things of to-morrow cannot be known by thinking.

Obs.先 síen, is an adverb in síen yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓好, you must first make preparations, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síen, he was born very early.

347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.

- 轎子拉前頭 kiau‘ ’tsz ’lá zíen deu, the chair is before.

Adverb as Adjective. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.

- 人是好好能個 niun ’zz ’hau ’hau nung kú‘, the man is good.

Or they qualify substantives.

- 做私底下個事體 tsú‘ sz ’tí ’áu kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, to do underhand things.

Adjective as Adverb. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.

- 多話兩句 tú wó‘ ’liáng kü‘, say a few sentences more.

- 好聽來些 ’hau t’ing lé, very pleasant to hear.

- 酒要少吃 ’tsieu yau‘ ’sau k’iuk, drink sparingly of wine.

- 好走進去 ’hau ’tseu tsing‘ k’í‘, you are quite at liberty to enter.

Obs. 前 zíen is an adjective in 前門 zíen mun, the front door; a post-position in 門前 mun zíen, before the door: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíen ’liáng nyih, a few days ago: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 tú‘ ’liáng yáng‘ kú‘, very different and in 勿大哩興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, not very crowded, it is an adverb.

Postposition as Adjective. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau, 前 zíen, 後 ’heu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.

- 外國 ngá‘ kóh, foreign nations.

- 城外 zung ngá‘, outside the city.

- 下手 ’hau ’seu, an under workman.

- 手下 ’seu ’au, 手底下 ’seu ’tí ’au, another’s authority.

- 後門 ’heu mun, back door.

- 飯後 van‘ ’heu, after breakfast.

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, north star; 江北 kong póh, north of the river; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, east of the Hwáng-p’ú river. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.

Substantive as Adjective. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.

- 窵籠 ’tiau lóng, bird-cage.

- 牛棚 nieu báng, cow shed.

- 花園 hwó yön, flower garden.

- 玻璃窻 pú lí t’song, glass window. (See Art. 174).

Section 3. Government of words in groups or combinations.

Inseparable groups. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

a. Thus, 交 kiau, to join, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, a boundary, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’yeu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, in treating friends you must be true. So also other verbs, as—

- 應 yung‘, to correspond, in 應騐 yung‘ níen‘, agreement with prediction. (Sometimes also to agree, etc.)

- 容 yúng, to allow, in 容易꜄ yúng í‘, easy.

- 過 kú‘, to pass, in 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault (cf. transgression).

b. In the same manner 功 kóng, work, 形 yung, form, and 氣 k’í‘, anger, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.

- 勿會成功太平 veh wé‘ zung kóng t’á‘ bing, he cannot establish peace.

- 形容出來 yung yóng t’seh lé, bring into visible form.

- 有啥要動氣我 ’yeu sá‘ yau‘ ’dóng k’í ’ngú, why are you angry with me?

c. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

- 討一個大娘子 ’t’au ih kú‘ dú‘ niáng ’tsz, to take a wife.

- 燒小菜 sau ’siau t’sé‘, to cook vegetables.

- 定牢個生意 ting‘ lau kú‘ ’tsû í‘, to fix one’s determination.

- 保全萬物 ’pau dzíen van‘ veh, to preserve all things.

Obs. In the first example 大 great is prefixed to the word for wife, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 firm is joined with 定 ting‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, needle; 線 síen‘, thread; 情 zing, feeling, represent actions not things in the sentences—

- 女人認眞針線紡織 ’nü niun niung‘-tsun tsun-síen‘-’fong-tsuh, women diligently sew, spin and weave.

- 甘心情願 kén sing zing niön‘, ready for and wishing.

354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’yung, to lead, and 線 síen‘, thread, form the compound 引線 ’yung síen‘, a needle; 方 fong, square, and 便 píen‘ convenient, form 方便 fong bíen‘, alms; 裁 dzé, to cut with scissors and 縫 vóng‘, a seam, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, tailor; 招 tsau, to call, and 軍 kiün, an army, form 招軍 tsau kiün, a trumpet.

- 開路先鋒 k’é lú‘ síen fóng, a herald.

- 牢頭禁子 lau deu kiun‘ ’tsz, jailor.

- 地保 tí‘ ’pau, village bailiff.

- 代書 té sû, notary.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.

- 伊個行事, 全是仁義道德 í‘ kú‘ háng-zz‘, dzén ’zz zun-ní‘-’dau-tuh, his actions are all based on benevolence, rectitude, reason and virtue.

- 做親個時候, 夫妻兩個板要拜天地神明 tsú‘ t’sing kú‘ zz-k’í‘, fú-t’sí ’liáng kú‘ ’pan yau‘ pá‘ t’íen-dí‘-zun-ming, at the time of marriage, the husband and wife must worship heaven, earth and the inferior deities.

- 大細有啥事體, 爺娘要問醫卜星相要好勿要好 tú‘ sí‘ ’yeu sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yá-niáng yau‘ mun‘ í-póh-sing-siáng‘ yau‘ ’hau veh yau‘ ’hau, if there be anything that concerns their children, the parents will ask the doctor, the diviner, the astrologer, and the physiognomist, if all will be well.

- 勿能用之器皿傢生, 測量伊個長闊高深 veh nung yúng‘ tsz k’í‘-’ming-ká-sáng, t’seh liáng, í‘ kú‘ dzang-k’weh-kau-sun, you cannot by taking instruments measure its length, breadth, height and depth. (four adj. here form one substantive, viz. dimensions.)

- 人勿好担兇來, 待之馬牛羊三樣中牲, 因備人用 niun veh ’hau tan h’iúng lé, de‘ tsz ’mó-nieu-yáng san yáng‘ tsóng sáng, yung bé‘ niun yúng‘, men ought not to be cruel in treating the three animals, horse, cow and sheep, because they are useful to man.

- 人嘸啥事體個辰光, 担琴碁書畫來, 消悶過日 niun m sá‘ zz‘ ’tí kú‘ zun kwong, tan‘ giun-gí-sû-wó‘ lé‘ siau mun‘ kó‘ nyih, when men have nothing to do, they take to the harp, chess, writing and painting, to dissipate care and pass away the time.

- 被褥鋪盖 pí‘-niók-p’ú-ké‘, coverlid and mattrass, for bedding.

- 鞋襪衣帽 há-mah-í-mau‘, shoes, stockings, clothes and hat.

- 順從 zun‘-zóng, to yield to and follow.

- 等待 ’tung-dé‘, wait for.

- 骨頭指節 kweh-deu-tsz tsih, bones, limbs and joints.

- 廣大 ’kwong dú‘, wide and great.

- 牢硬 lau ngáng‘, firm and hard.

- 播揚奧妙個道理 pú‘-yáng au‘-miau‘ kú‘ ’tau-’lí, to propagate mysterious and wonderful doctrines.

356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.

- 有一種爲非作歹個人 ’yeu ih ’tsóng wé-fí-tsok-’té kú‘ niun, there is a sort of vicious mischief-making men.

- 一眼嘸情嘸義個 ih ’ngan m-dzing-m-ní‘ kú‘, quite destitute of feeling and principle.

- 正管偷閑懶惰 tsung‘ ’kwén t’eu han ’lan dú‘, they do nothing but waste time and be lazy.

- 認差之假佯頭發囘往心 niung‘ t’só tsz ’ká yá deu fah wé ’wong sing, he was misled by his pretend change of mind.

- 領之傳杯弄盞個朋友出去 ’ling tsz dzén pé lóng‘ ’tsan kú‘ páng ’yeu t’seh k’í‘, he led out his friends who were his drinking companions.

- 嘸沒出典 m meh t’seh ’tíen, has on classical authority.

Obs. i. 出 governs 典 ancient books, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb m meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, it is not used in books.

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, do-nothing life.”

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百姓, 今年苦惱者 yáng‘ zén lau tsóng‘ dzó yih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níen ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzén ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked.

357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the sense. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, miserable; 福氣 fók k’í‘, happiness; 恩典 un ’tíen‘ favour; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, to believe in, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 tá‘ ká, must be prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.

- 吩咐 fun fú, to command.

- 須張 sü tsáng,[1] to nurse (c).

- 叮囑 ting tsóh, give directions.

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.

[1] Or 張羅 tsáng lú, to nurse (also c.)

Separable groups. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.

a. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.

- 飛禽走獸 fí giun ’tseu seu‘, birds and beasts.

- 歡天喜地 hwén t’íen ’h’í dí‘, exceedingly pleased.

- 通文達理 t’óng vun ta ’lí, thoroughly understand literary composition.

- 心滿意足 sing ’mén í‘ tsóh, satisfied.

- 咬牙切齒 ’ngau ngá t’sih ’t’sz, grinding the teeth in pain.

- 囘心轉意 wé sing ’tsén í‘, to change one’s mind.

- 思前想後 sz zíen ’siáng heu‘, thinks of the past and future.

- 循規蹈矩 dzing kwé‘ dau‘ ’kü, follow the rule of propriety.

- 求神拜佛 kieu zun pá‘ veh, pray to spirits and worship Buddha.

- 早思暮想 ’tsau sz mú‘ ’siáng, meditate early and late.

b. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.

- 一根長銅絲 ih kun dzáng dóng sz, a long piece of brass wire.

- 一片大鐵片 ih p’íen‘ dú‘ t’ih p’íen‘, a large piece of iron.

- 一隻會白話個鸚𪃿 ih tsáh wé‘ báh wó‘ kú‘ áng kú, a talking parrot.

- 一根長竹頭 ih kun dzáng tsóh deu, a long stick of bamboo.

- 一隻花狗 ih tsáh hwó ’keu, a spotted dog.

- 一張厚紙 ih tsáng ’heu ’tsz, a thick sheet of paper.

- 一張薄紙張 ih tsáng bóh ’tsz tsáng, a thin piece of paper.

- 一枝有鋒鋩個筆 ih tsz ’yeu fóng mong kú‘ pih, a pencil that has a point.

c. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

- 上之檔者 ’zong tsz tong‘ ’tsé, he has been entrapped.

- 專之權咾殺脱之皇帝者 tsén tsz giön lau sah t’eh tsz wong tí‘ ’tsé, relying on his influence, he killed the emperor.

- 惹有見識個笑 ’zá ’yeu kíen‘ suh kú‘ siau‘, causing the laughter of those who are intelligent.

- 叨儂光嗄 t’au nóng‘ kwong au, I beg your favour (light).

Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, it would be better to slacken the rope.

d. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.

- 同壺滴水下來 tóng ú tih ’sz ’au lé, brazen urn dropping water.

- 放轎子下來 fong‘ giau‘ ’tsz ’au lé, let the chair down.

- 放我開來 fong‘ ’ngú k’é lé, let me go.

- 赶兵出去 kûn ping t’seh k’í‘, drive out soldiers.

- 挑担出來 t’iau tan t’seh lé, carry out a load.

- 打馬前去 ’táng ’mó zíen k’í‘, drive a horse forward.

- 併傢生攏來 ’ping ká sáng ’lóng lé, collect domestic articles.

- 再活別人轉來 tsé‘ weh bih niun ’tsén lé, call a man to life again.

- 轉水進去 ’tsén ’sz tsing‘ k’í‘, pour in water.

- 殺進城來 sah tsing‘ zung lé, enter the city fighting.

- 赶出狗來 kûn t’seh ’keu lé, drive out dogs.

- 担出衣裳來 tan t’seh í zong lé, bring clothes out.

- 反轉手來 ’fan ’tsén ’seu lé, turn one’s hand over.

- 旋轉盤來 zíen‘ ’tsén bén lé, turn the tray round.

- 撐開船來 t’sáng ké‘ zén lé, pole the boat away.

- 推開窻來 t’é k’é t’song lé, push the window open.

- 行起風來 háng ’k’í fóng le, take the wind to work the boat.

- 擎起刀來 kiung ’k’í tau lé, lift up a knife.

- 放起炮來 fong‘ ’k’í p’au‘ lé, commence firing cannon.

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’au lé, men are coming down; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, wind blows in.

e. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.

- 認大勿出 niun‘ dá‘ veh t’seh, I scarcely recognize him.

- 話大勿來 wó‘ dá‘ veh lé, I cannot well talk.

- 看大勿見 k’ön‘ dá‘ veh kíen‘, I can scarcely see it.

- 吃大勿落 k’iuh dá‘ veh loh, I cannot well eat.

f. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.

- 呌伊勿出 kiau‘ í veh t’seh, I do not know its name.

- 甩伊勿開 hwah í veh k’é, I cannot throw him off.

- 拔伊勿起 pah í veh ’k’í, I cannot pull it up.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, he cannot resist the great army; 做勿動生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng weh, I cannot do any work.

g. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ön‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ön‘.

- 問問伊看 mun‘ mun‘ í k’ön‘, ask him and see.

- 做做文章看 tsú‘ tsú‘ vun tsáng k’ön‘, write an essay as a specimen.

Section 4. On Repetition.

360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first considered.

Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated by all or every.

- 人人算日頭, 無價之寶 niun niun sön‘ nyih deu, vú ká‘ tsz ’pau, all men feel that the sun is inestimably precious.

- 處處反亂 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’fan lön‘, rebellion and disturbance everywhere.

- 君君臣臣 kiun kiun zun zun, all princes and magistrates.

- 樹樹有皮, 人人有面 zû‘ zû‘ ’yeu bí, niun niun ’yeu míen‘, trees all have bark, and men all have faces.

361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense of all and every to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same sense.

- 店家家關者 tíen‘ ká ká kwan ’tsé, the shops are all shut.

- 門扇扇鎖好拉 mun sén‘ sén‘ ’sú ’hau ’lá, the doors are all locked.

- 羊隻隻要修 yáng tsáh tsáh yau‘ sieu, the sheep all need to be shorn.

- 城裏向舖舖有小甲 zung ’lí h’iáng‘ p’ú‘ p’ú‘ ’yeu ’siau kah, in the city every ward has a bailiff.

- 天天好日頭 t’íen t’íen ’hau nyih deu, the sun shines every day.

- 物事斤斤缺少 meh zz‘ kiun kiun k’iöh ’sau, each catty of articles is short.

- 把把刀磨快末者 pó pó tau mú k’wá‘ meh ’tsé, grind all the knives.

- 間間房子坍脱者 kan kan vong ’tsz t’an t’eh ’tsé, every house is fallen.

- 今年菓子種種勿好 kiun níen ’kú ’tsz ’tsóng ’tsóng veh ’hau, this year all kinds of fruits have failed.

- 姊妹雙雙出來 tsí mé‘ song song t’seh lé, the elder and younger sisters are come out in pairs.

- 寫字個法則是筆筆中鋒 ’siá zz‘ kú‘ fah tsuh pih pih tsóng fóng, the method of writing is for each stroke to be made with the point of the pencil.

- 條條大路 tiau diau dá‘ lú‘, they are all great roads.

- 句句眞話 kü‘ kü‘ tsun wó‘, every sentence is truth.

Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká, a street is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血 ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mén tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, the streets were all covered with blood an inch high. 衖 long‘, a lane, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ yeu seh ngá ká niun ká, in every lane there are ten families or more.

Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense always. This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.

362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.

- 做生活個人勞勞碌碌 tsú‘ sáng weh kú‘ niun lau lau lóh lóh, the workmen are tired.

- 好好物事 ’hau ’hau meh zz‘, a good article.

- 小小個一圓鐵蛋 ’siau ’siau kú‘ ih yön t’ih dan‘, a small iron shot.

- 多多百姓 tú tú pák sing‘, very many people.

- 花卉妖妖嬈嬈 hwó ’hwé yau yau zau zau, the flowers are very beautiful.

- 樹林密密層層 zû‘ ling mih mih zung zung, the wood is crowded with trees.

- 山頭玲玲瓏瓏 san deu ling ling lóng lóng, the hill is picturesque.

- 若惆惆 ’k’ú tseu tseu, unhappy.

- 聽見之書聲朗朗 t’ing kíen‘ tsz sû sung long‘ long‘, we heard the sound of reading pleasant and clear.

- 眼淚汪汪 ’ngan lí‘ wong wong, tears flowing abundantly.

- 火星燄燄 ’hú sing yan‘ yan‘, the sparks are very bright.

- 十指尖尖 seh ’tsz tsíen tsíen, ten sharp-pointed fingers.

363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as adverbs.

- 物事安排舒舒徐徐個 meh zz‘ ön bá sû sû zí zí kú‘, the things were placed in admirable order.

- 做來潦潦草草 tsú‘ lé lau lau t’sau‘ t’sau‘, it is done in a coarse way.

Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’yeu ih páh, altogether there are a hundred. The primitive adverbs are not repeated.

364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration in the sense.

- 叔叔 sóh sóh, uncle.

- 嫂嫂 ’sau ’sau, sister-in-law.

- 爹爹 tiá tiá, father.

- 第第 ’tí ’dí, younger brother.

- 姊姊 ’tsí ’tsí, sister (ah tsí, idem).

- 妹妹 mí‘ mí‘, younger sister (mé‘ mé‘).

- 媽媽 má má, mother (or ah má).

- 哥哥 kú kú, elder brother (ah kú, ib.).

- 弟弟 tí‘ dí‘, younger brother (hiúng dí‘).

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.

a. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.

- 要買點飯吃吃 yau‘ ’má ’tíen van‘ k’iuh k’iuh, I wish to buy a little rice to eat.

- 我不過澆澆花咾, 修修丫枝 ’ngú peh kú‘ kiau kiau hwó lau, sieu sieu au tsz, I am just watering the flowers, and pruning the branches of the trees.

b. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.

- 孛相相 peh siáng‘ siáng‘, rambling for amusement.

- 笑嘻嘻 siau‘ h’í h’í, laughing.

- 魚拉水裏活動動 ng ’lá ’sz ’lí weh ’dóng ’dóng, the fish are swimming actively in the water.

- 遊嬉嬉咾, 勿肯用必 yeu h’í h’í lau, veh ’k’ung yúng‘ sing, he rambles about amusing himself, and will not attend to anything.

- 哭漓漓 k’óh lí lí, he is weeping.

c. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.

- 打敗之咾紛紛各散 ’táng bá‘ tsz lau fun fun koh san‘, being conquered, they divided and were all scattered.

- 打贏之咾歸來得意揚揚 ’tang yung tsz lau kü lé tuh í‘ yáng yáng, having conquered, he came back satisfied and elated.

- 衣袂飄飄 í mé‘ p’iau p’iau, the shirts of clothes blowing about.

- 星光閃閃 sing kwong sén‘ sén‘, the star-light twinkles.

- 枝葉洽洽 tsz ih yah yah, the branches and leaves are waving.

d. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.

- 事體定定當當 zz‘ t’í ting‘ ding‘ tong‘ tong‘, the thing is brought to a settlement.

- 勿必疑疑惑惑 veh pih ní ní óh óh, you need not suspect.

- 牙齒活活落落 ngá ’t’sz weh weh loh loh, his teeth are shaking and falling out.

- 走𨅓跎之咾興興夯夯 ’tseu sá dú tsz lau h’iung h’iung hong hong, he has walked himself tired and is panting for breath.

- 碗盞相碰响咾歴歴碌碌 ’wén ’tsan siáng báng‘ ’h’iáng lau líh líh lóh lóh, the cups and saucers are falling together and making a noise.

e. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.

- 打算打算也勿對景 ’táng sön‘ ’táng sön‘ ’á veh té‘ ’kiung, with all his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself.

- 留步留歩勿要送者 lieu bú‘ lieu bú‘ veh yau‘ sóng‘ ’tsé, stay, stay, do not escort me out.

- 物事好吃有味有味 meh zz‘ ’hau k’iuh ’yeu mí‘ ’yeu mí‘, this thing is very nice, it has a fine taste.

f. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.

- 總要勞心勞力 ’tsóng yau‘ lau sing lau lih, you must use your mind and all your efforts.

- 年成好者謝天謝地 níen zung ’hau ’tsé ziá‘ t’íen ziá‘ dí‘, it is a good year, and we must thank heaven and earth for it.

- 爲皇爲帝 wé wong wé tí‘, to be an emperor.

- 做官做府 tsú‘ kwén tsú‘ ’fú, to be a mandarin.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1 in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.

a. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.

- 做一個人總要正正派派 tsu‘ ih kú‘ niun ’tsóng yau‘ tsung‘ tsung‘ p’á‘ p’á‘, as a man, you must be correct in conduct.

- 人住勒拉花花世界, 大有福氣拉 niun dzû‘ leh ’lá hwó hwó sz‘ kú‘, dú‘ ’yeu fok kí‘ ’lá, man living in a beautiful world, has great happiness.

b. As verb.

- 看看許多人跟拉 k’ön‘ k’ön‘ tú hau‘ niun kun ’lá, see there is a great number of persons following.

c. As verb.

- 逃走脱者就快快活活接到船上 tau ’tseu t’eh ’tsé dzieu‘ k’á‘ k’á‘ weh weh tsih tau‘ zén long‘, when he had escaped, they gladly received him to the boat.

- 明明亮亮收受徒弟 ming ming liáng‘ liáng‘ seu ’zeu dú dí‘, they openly received disciples.

- 詳詳細細考究實骨子那能個 ziáng ziáng sí‘ sí‘ ’k’au kieu‘ zeh kweh ’tsz ná‘ nung kú‘, carefully examine how it truly is.

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí m sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished.

Section 5. Order in groups.

367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, do you understand? (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yön ’lí ’wong, to redress injuries. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nian‘ nian‘ peh vong, think of constantly.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.

- 有啥勿懂 ’yeu sá‘ veh ’tong, why should I not understand?

- 勿曾曉得 veh zung ’h’iau tuh, I do not know.

- 洋價大者 yáng ká‘ dú‘ ’tsé, the price of the dollar is high.

- 那能辦法 ná‘ nung‘ pan‘ fah, how should we proceed?

- 要好就好 yau‘ ’hau dzieu‘ ’hau, if you want it good, it is at once good.

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

- 嘴尖舌快 ’tsz tsíen zeh k’wá‘, sharp lips and tongue.

- 靑天白日 t’sing t’íen bah nyih, clear sky and bright sun.

- 忘恩負義 vong un veu‘ ní‘, forget kindness.

- 欺天瞞地 k’í t’íen mén dí‘, deceive heaven and earth.

- 東倒西歪 tóng ’tau sí hwá, all is in disorder.

- 話長話短 wó‘ dzáng wó‘ ’tön, very loquacious.

- 搬嘴弄舌 pén ’tsz lóng‘ zeh, fond of using the tongue.

- 呑飢忍餓 t’un kí ’niun ngú‘, to endure hunger.

- 人面獸心 niun míen‘ seu‘ sing, in face a man, but in heart a wild beast.

- 苦口良言 ’k’ú ’k’eu líang íen, advice bitter but salutary.

- 山珍海味 san tsun ’hé mí‘, delicacies from the mountain and the sea.

- 指東話西 ’tsz tóng wó‘ sí, advising this and then that.

- 藏頭露尾 dzong deu lú‘ ’ví, act contrary to propriety.

- 喜富怕窮 ’h’í fú‘ p’ó‘ gióng, pleased with riches but fearing poverty.

- 損人利己 ’sun niun lí‘ ’kí, rob others to enrich one’s-self.

- 呼兄喊第 hú h’iúng han‘ dí‘, to call brothers.

- 或三或四 woh san wóh sz‘, sometimes this and sometimes that.

- 引經據典 ’yung kiung kü‘ ’tíen, to cite books and appeal to the classics.

- 吹哥唱曲 t’sz kú t’song‘ k’ióh, to play airs and sing songs.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.

- 風雲雷雨 fóng yün lé ’ü, wind, clouds, thunder and rain.

- 雨雪霜露 ’ü sih song lú‘, rain, snow, hail and dew.

- 賢良方正 híen liáng fong tsung‘, the wise, good, noble and upright.

- 柴米油鹽 zá ’mí yeu íen, fuel, rice, oil and salt.

- 荳穀米麥 teu‘ kóh ’mí máh, beans, rice and wheat.

- 始終本末 ’sz tsóng ’pun meh, beginning and end, origin and conclusion.

- 牛羊犬馬 nieu, yáng, ’k’iön, ’mó, cattle, sleep, dogs and horses.

- 君親師友 kiün t’sing sz ’yeu, king, parents, teacher and friends.

- 磚瓦石灰 tsén ’ngó záh hwé, bricks, tiles and lime.

- 禽獸昆蟲 kiun seu‘ k’wun dzóng, birds, beasts and insects.

- 瓶甏罐頭 ping báng kwén deu, pitchers, pots and pans.

- 耳目口鼻 ’rh móh ’k’eu bih, ear eyes, mouth and nose.

- 魚鳞蝦蟹 ng ling hön ’há, fish, crabs and shrimps.

- 金銀銅錫 kiun niun dóng t’ih sih, gold, copper, copper, iron and tin.

- 解釋 ’ká seh, explain.

- 審斷 ’sun tön‘, to judge.

- 離散 lí san‘, to be scattered.

- 偷竊 t’eu t’sih, to steal.

- 圓滿 yön ’mén, round & full.

- 端方 tön fong, upright.

- 紡織 ’fong tsuh, spinning and weaving.

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.

371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.

- 筆筒好插個 pih dóng ’hau t’sah kú‘, you can stick it in the pencil holder.

- 嘸沒筆帽子 m meh pih mau ’tsz, there is no top-case to the pencil.

- 蚊帳破個 mun tsáng, p’ú‘ kú‘, the mosquito curtain is torn.

- 扇骨綠漆個 sén‘ kweh lók t’sih kú‘, the frame of the fan is painted green.

- 鐵店裏打拉個 t’ih tíen‘ lí ’táng ’lá kú‘, it was made in the blacksmith’s shop.

- 石馬 sáh ’mó, stone horse.

- 蒲扇 pú sén‘, broad-leaf fans.

- 砂皮 só bí, sand paper.

- 瓦粒屑 ’ngó lih sih, earthenware fragments.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, genus being only such part of species as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the essence, while the other is the accident. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, foundation of a house; 屋頂 hó ’ting, house roof, are parts of the appellative substantive house. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, piece of flattened bamboo; 竹簾 tsóh líen, bamboo window-blinds; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, bamboo paper, is in each case that which expresses form, while the first describes the material.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called genus, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular species.

Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 van‘ m zing t’sû‘, there is no way of getting a living; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be some mode of writing it.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 páh wó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sön‘ bén, counting board; 印板 yun‘ ’pan, printing blocks; 話柄 wó ping‘, a bon mot (See Art. 113.).

Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, literary compositions; 地方 tí‘ fong, a place. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.

- 担來銷化 tan lé siau hwó‘, to take and burn.

- 燈點完者 tung ’tíen wén ’tsé, the lamp is burnt out.

- 撥拉賊匪打輸 peh ’lá zuh fí‘ ’táng sû, he was defeated by the rebels.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ön‘, make inquiries.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of power, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh wé‘ báh wó‘, he cannot talk; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, he cannot go. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. may, can.

Variation in Order. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.

- 來往 lé ’wong, communication.

- 氣力 k’í‘ lih, strength.

- 笑談 siau‘ dan, laughing and talking.

- 征戰 tsung tsén‘ to fight.

- 週身上下 tseu sun ’zong ’au, the whole body (or 下上).

- 歡喜 hwen ’h’í, pleased.

- 勿論損益 veh lun‘ ’sun yuh, without regarding whether it be injurious or beneficial.

- 小大 ’siao dú‘, small, great.

- 黑白 huh, báh, black, white.

- 南北東西 nén póh tóng sí, south, north, east and west.

- 靈魂 ling wung, the soul.

- 彎轉 wan ’tsén, to turn around.

- 長短 dzáng ’tön, long and short.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens.

374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

a. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 wé‘, 能 nung.

- 總要去 ’tsóng yau‘ k’í‘, you must go.

- 我會寫 ’ngú wé‘ ’siá, I can write.

- 勿能來 veh nung lé, he cannot come.

- 勿要來 veh yau‘ lé, I do not wish to come; or do not come.

- 勿會話要來 veh zung wó‘ yau‘ lé, I did not say, I should come.

- 儂也要來 nóng‘ ’á yau‘ lé, you must come.

b. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.

- 勿免死 veh ’míen ’sí, cannot avoid dying.

- 勿想吃 veh ’siáng k’iuh, I do not think of eating.

- 勿算逃走 veh sön‘ dau ’tseu, not to be regarded as flight.

- 勿敢做 veh ’kén tsú‘, he does not dare do it.

- 幾時想修 ’kí zz ’siáng sieu, when do you think of reforming.

- 打算謀反 ’táng sön‘ meu ’fan, to meditate a revolt.

- 愛吃酒 é‘ k’iuk ’tsieu, to be fond of drinking wine.

c. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

- 買進來 ’má tsing‘ lé, to buy in.

- 抱進抱出 ’pau tsing‘ ’pau t’seh, to carry in and out in one’s arms.

d. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.

- 我去送 ’ngú k’í‘ sóng‘, I will go and present it.

- 要來相幫 yau‘ lé siáng pong, you must come and assist.

- 勸化世界上人 k’iön‘ hwó‘ sz‘ ká‘ long‘ niung, to exhort and convert mankind.

- 打殺別人 ’táng sah bih niun, to beat persons to death.

e. Coordinate verbs.

- 保護𩻴寡孤獨 ’pau ú‘ kwan kwó kú dóh, to protect and save widows, orphans, and those who have no relatives.

Section 6. Simple Propositions.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.

- 馬來 ’mó lé, a horse comes.

- 天熱 t’íen nyih, the weather is hot.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh wé‘, the procession is out; 落水 lok ’sz, the tide is falling. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 tau ’tsz zók ’tsé, the peaches are ripe.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.

- 是吾作主 ’zz ngú tsok ’tsû, I act for myself.

- 海裏個水是深個 ’hé ’lí kú‘ ’sz ’zz sun kú‘, the water of the sea is deep.

- 天來得熱 t’íen lé tuh nyih, the weather is hot.

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.

- 日頭勿出來 nyih deu veh t’seh lé, the sun does not come out.

- 菴堂寺院秃有燒香 én dong zz‘ yön‘ t’oh ’yeu ’sau h’iáng, in all convents and monasteries there is incense burning.

- 第個是好點個 tí‘ kú‘ ’zz ’hau ’tíen kú‘, this is better.

- 買是勿能 ’má ’zz veh nung, to buy is impossible.

- 挑咾扛勿會個 t’iau lau kong veh wé‘ kú‘, to act as porter alone or with others, is what I cannot do.

- 此地有雪 ’t’sz dí‘ ’yeu sih, it snows here.

- 明朝初六 ming tsau t’sú lóh, to-morrow is the sixth.

Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, (you) must be resolute.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’yeu ’hau pau‘, goodness has a good reward; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zén lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíen‘ t’seh lé, virtue and vice must be distinguished.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 tí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, this house is the right one, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, it is this one; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’yeu, there are two bridges, or 橋有兩條 kiau ’yeu ’liáng diau, of bridge there are two.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 wé‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.

- 道理是勿差個 ’tau ’lí ’zz veh t’só kú‘, the doctrine, is right.

- 心裏來得笨 sing ’lí lé tuh pun‘, in mind he is stupid.

- 我勿做兵 ’ngú veh tsú‘ ping, I am not a soldier.

- 我勿為官 ’ngú veh wé kwén ’fú, I am not a mandarin.

- 寫來好看 ’siá lé ’hau k’ön‘, it is well written.

- 寫得勿好 ’siá tuh veh ’hau, it is written badly.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

- 比我大個是阿哥 ’pí ’ngú dú‘ kú‘ ’zz á kú, he who is older than I is called elder brother.

- 赦免小過失好個 só‘ ’míen ’siau kú‘ seh ’hau kú‘, to forgive little faults readily is good.

- 戲咾戲法咾啥勿看 h’í‘ lau h’í‘ fah lau sá‘ veh k’ön‘, plays, jugglery and such things, I do not go to see.

- 價錢最大個是珍珠八寶 ká‘ díen tsúe‘ dú‘ kú‘ ’zz tsun tsû pah ’pau, things of the highest price are pearls and the eight precious stones.

Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話好個 seh wó‘ ’hau kú‘, your words are good.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.

- 做好事就是周濟窮人 tsú‘ ’hau zz‘ dzieu‘ ’zz tseu tsí‘ gióng niun, charity consists in giving to the poor.

- 伊勿能辦事體 í veh nung pan‘ zz‘ ’t’í, he cannot transact business.

- 有銅錢個人要吃燕窩咾魚翅, ’yeu dóng díen kú‘ niun yau‘ k’iuh íen‘ ú lau ng t’sz‘, those who are rich eat birds’ nests and sharks’ fins.

381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—
a. By prefixing an adjective.

- 聖人出世 sung‘ niun t’seh sz‘, a wise man was born.

- 窮苦個人多 kióng ’k’ú kú‘ niun tú, poor men are very many.

- 好老個讀書人少 ’hau ’lau kú‘ tók sû niun ’sau, really good scholars are rare.

b. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.

- 鄕下人告荒去者 h’iáng ’au niun kau‘ hwong k’í‘ ’tsé, the country people are gone to announce that there is a famine (or 哭荒).

- 上輩個好處要講拉子孫聽 ’záng pé‘ kú‘ ’hau t’sû‘ yau‘ ’kong ’lá ’tsz sun t’ing, the goodness of their forefathers, you should tell to their descendants.

c. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

- 吃牛肉眞正罪過 k’iuh nieu nióh tsun tsung‘ ’zé kú‘, to eat beef is an unquestionable sin.

d. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.

- 屋裏向嘸沒人 óh ’lí h’iáng‘ m meh niun, there is no one at home.

- 勒拉睏個辰光有賊偷之去者 leh ’lá k’wun‘ kú‘ zun kwong ’yeu zuh t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, at the time of sleeping, thieves came and stole it.

Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.

e. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.

- 兩個女人投井者 ’liáng kú‘ ’nü niun deu ’tsing ’tsé, two women have thrown themselves into wells.

- 三隻廟燒毀完者 san tsáh miau‘ sau ’hwé wén ’tsé, three temples have been burnt to ashes.

f. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.

- 是㑚個房屋勿穩足個 ’zz ná‘ kú‘ vong óh veh ’wun tsóh kú‘, your house is not safe.

- 第部牛車了脱者 tí‘ ’bú‘ nieu t’só ’liau t’eh ’tsé, this chain pump is broken.

- 各人個脾氣各樣個 koh niun kú‘ bí‘ k’í‘ koh yáng‘ kú‘, each man has his own disposition.

g. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.

- 此地個水清個 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ ’sz t’sing kú‘, the water of this place is clear.

- 蕩搭個人掉皮個 tong tah kú‘ niun tiau‘ bí‘ kú‘, the men of this place are not honest.

- 間壁房子火灼 kah pih vong ’tsz ’hú dzáh, the house next door is on fire.

- 什蓋能個謠言拉城裏 seh ké‘ nung kú‘ yau íen ’lá zung ’lí, there is a report of that sort in the city.

- 現在個百姓勿比古時間 íen ’zé kú‘ pák sing‘ veh ’pí ’kú zz kan, people of the present time are not to be compared to those of antiquity.

382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.

- 外國梳頭個規矩又是一樣者 ngá‘ kóh sz deu kú‘ kwé ’kü í‘ ’zz ih yáng‘ ’tsé, the foreign method of dressing the hair is different.

- 孝順父母恭敬祖宗原是一樣個道理 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, kúng kiung‘ ’tsú tsóng, niön ’zz ih yáng‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí, filial regard to parents and reverencing ancestors are the same thing.

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.

а. Substantive with its adjective.

- 是其勿是正派人 ’zz gí veh ’zz tsung‘ p’á‘ niun, he is not a man of good morals.

- 一日到夜做正經事體 ih nyih tau‘ yá‘ tsú‘ tsung‘ kiung zz‘ ’t’í, all day long he does what is lawful and right.

b. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.

- 伊話個勿是上海話 í wó‘ kú‘ veh ’zz ’zong ’hé wó‘, what he speaks is not the dialect of Shánghái.

- 八月裏開個有桂花 pah niöh ’lí k’é kú‘ ’yeu kwé‘ hwó, among the flowers that blossom in the eighth month is the olea fragrans.

c. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by and, to and of are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.

- 我要走前去做 ’ngú yau‘ ’tseu zíen k’í‘ tsú‘, I wish to go forward and do it.

- 我勿想考 ’ngú veh ’siáng ’k’au, I do not think of being examined.

- 我勿來打儂 ’ngú veh lé ’táng nóng‘, I do not come to beat you.

d. Verb with an object.

- 別人恨伊拉 pih niun hung‘ í ’lá, men hated him.

- 脚勿踏斜路 kiáh veh tah ziá lú‘, his foot does not tread the path of evil.

- 早夜用功 ’tsau yá‘ yúng‘ kóng, morning and night, he applies himself to study.

- 雲裏向看相殺 yün ’lí h’iáng‘ k’ön‘ siáng sah, to take a bird’s-eye view of a battle (相殺 is construed as a noun).

e. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.

- 東家勿拉屋裏 túng ká veh ’lá óh ’lí, the master is not at home.

- 百姓勒拉掛墓 pák sing‘ leh ’lá kwó‘ m‘, the people are hanging (paper) on the tombs.

f. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.

- 銀子有一百兩 niung ’tsz ’yeu ih páh ’liáng, of silver, there are a hundred taels.

- 第把雨傘是吾個 tí‘ pó ’ü san‘ ’zz ngú kú‘, this umbrella is mine.

g. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.

- 件件事體禿是做得正經個 kíen gíen zz‘ ’t’í t’óh ’zz tsú‘ tuh tsung‘ kiung kú‘, everything is done as propriety requires.

- 菩薩一定曉得 pú sah ih ding‘ ’h’iau tuh, the gods will certainly know it.

h. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.

- 黃衣裳是皇帝送個 wong í zong ’zz wong tí‘ sóng‘ kú‘, yellow dresses are given by the emperor.

- 團扇是蘇州做個 tön sen‘ ’zz Sú-tseu tsú‘ kú‘, round (silk) fans are made at Sú-cheú.

- 人個過犯全是神道查察個 niun kú‘ kú‘ van dzén ’zz zun dau‘ dzó t’sah kú‘, men’s sins are all watched and noted by the spiritual powers.

- 人全是一個祖宗傳下來 niun dzén ’zz ih kú‘ ’tsú tsóng zén ’au lé, men are all descended from one ancestor.

- 我下半晝轉來個 ’ngú ’au pén‘ tseu‘ ’tsen lé kú‘, I will return in the afternoon.

- 地皮是牛犂個 tí‘ bí ’zz nieu lí kú‘, the ground is ploughed by oxen.

- 從小到大是爺娘照應 dzóng ’siau tau‘ dú‘ ’zz yá niáng tsau‘ yung‘, from childhood till they are grown they are watched over by their parents.

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

j. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.

- 張舉人到蘇去者 Tsáng ’kü niun tau‘ Sú-tseu k’í‘ ’tsé, the Master of Arts named Cháng, is gone to Sú-cheú.

- 第個砲架子替吳道台做個 tí‘ kú‘ p’au‘ ká‘ ’tsz t’í‘ Wú ’dau dé tsú‘ kú‘, this cannon-carriage is made for Wú the Taú-tái.

k. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.

- 是㑚飄流個人忒多 ’zz ná‘ p’iau lieu kú‘ niun t’uk tú, you wandering people are too many.

- 打官司要速訊定當 ’táng kwén sz yau‘ sók sin‘ ding‘ tong‘, lawsuits should be quickly decided.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.

- 生活要做到夜 sáng weh yau‘ tsú‘ tau‘ yá‘, work must be done till evening.

- 我白費脱之許多手脚 ’ngú pák fí‘ t’eh tsz ’h’ü tú ’seu kiáh, I do have gone through a great deal of labour to no purpose.

- 賭銅錢勿曉得敗脫之幾千幾萬個人家 ’tú dóng díen veh ’h’iau tuh bá‘ t’eh tsz ’kí t’síen ’kí man‘ kú‘ niun ká, gaming has ruined I do not know how many thousands and myriads of men.

- 我看見伊出來 ’ngú (subj.) k’ön‘ kíen‘ í t’seh lé, I saw him come out.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of yes, and with the negative particle (勿是), no. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

- 新眞正來得硬 sing tsun tsung‘ lé tuh ngáng‘, his heart is certainly hard.

- 一定是牢實 ih ding‘ ’zz lau zeh, he is certainly trustworthy.

- 總是花頭花腦 ’tsóng ’zz hwó deu hwó ’nau, it is surely false.

- 昨日來個就是我 zóh nyih lé kú‘ dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, he who came yesterday was I myself.

Obs. The verb to have 有 ’yeu (with its opposite 嘸沒 m meh) describes existence, as in French the verb avoir. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíen m meh sá, or m sá‘, there is nothing the matter; 第個道理實在有 tí‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí zeh zé‘ ’yeu, there certainly is this doctrine.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.

- 一眼勿疑心 ih ’ngan veh ní sing, not at all incredulous.

- 伊並勿是要騙打㑚 í ping‘ veh ’zz yau‘ p’íen‘ ’táng ná‘, he surely does not attempt to deceive you.

- 樹木倒勿曾發靑 zû‘ móh ’tau veh zung fah t’sing, the trees have still not yet opened their buds.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, you are not obliged to go.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 wé, 作 tsoh.

- 第個勿呌公道 tí‘ kú‘ veh kiau‘ kúng ’dau, that is not (or cannot be called) just (or veh kúng ’dau), (or veh sön‘ kúng ’dau, cannot be considered as just).

- 我做用人 ’ngú tsú‘ yúng‘ niun, I am a servant.

- 謀反爲大事體 meu ’fan wé dú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, rebellion is a great matter.

- 女人勿好作主張 ’nü niun veh ’hau tsok ’tsû tsáng, women should not be rulers.

Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.

- 人秃是劃一個 niun t’óh ’zz wáh ih kú‘, the men are all honest.

- 惡事體一切全要甩脫個 og zz‘ ’t’í ih t’sih dzén yau‘ hwah t’eh kú‘, bad actions are all to be abandoned.

- 字目大有用頭 zz‘ móh tú‘ ’yeu yúng‘ deu, great is the use of the written character.

389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the potential verb groups, where 得 tuh and 勿 veh stand between two verbs; e.g. 打勿贏 ’táng veh yung, fighting he does not conquer; 話得出 wó‘ tuh t’seh, speaking can express it; 走得轉 ’tseu tuk ’tsén, walking you can turn back.

Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean he cannot conquer, it can be described in words, he can turn back. If viewed alone as separate sentences, the first verb is the subject, and the second the predicate. So when the last word in these groups is an adjective, it may be regarded as predicate to the verb which stands first. This is particularly obvious where the potential force of 得 tuh and 勿 veh are wanting, 推板勿多 t’é pan veh tú, there is no great difference; 寫得快 ’siá tuh k’wá‘, he writes fast. Where the potential force exists in these phrases; e.g. 吹勿响 t’sz veh ’h’iáng, it cannot be sounded (of a flute); 豎勿直 ’zû veh dzuh, it cannot be set upright; 改勿正 ’ke veh tsung‘, it cannot be corrected; though the relation of subject and predicate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best explanation.

Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there is no potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative 高得多 kau tuh tú, it is much higher.

Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, 來 lé is used convertibly with 得 tuh; i.e. 寫來快 ’siá lé k’wá‘, he writes fast. Of the two 得 is most used by the educated.

390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthened by expletives. 末 meh belongs to the former, and 個, 拉, 哩, 者 kú‘, ’lá, ’lí, ’tsé to the latter.

Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the case of 末, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective has time given to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.

Section 7. Subordinate Sentences.

391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying and wishing, etc. taking the initiatory particle that in English, usually follow the proposition or verb they explain.

- 不過聽見儂欵待讀書人 pih kú‘ t’ing kíen‘ nóng‘ k’wén dé‘ tók sû niun, I have merely heard that you treat with generosity literary men.

- 伊話勿能來 í wó‘ veh nung lé, he said he could not come.

- 我曉得伊難過日脚 ’ngú‘ ’h’iau tuh í nan ku‘ nyih kiáh, I know that he lived on with difficulty.

- 我勿相信第隻船將要翻脫 ’ngú veh siáng sing‘ tí‘ tsáh zén tsiáng yau‘ ’fan t’eh, I do not believe this boat is going to overturn.

Obs. i. The clause introduced with that is often placed first. 官府嘸没銀子是人人曉得個 kwén ’fú m meh niung ’tsz ’zz niun niun ’h’iau tuh kú‘, that the mandarins have no money is known by every one; 要進城話拉 yau‘ tsing‘ zung wó‘ ’lá, he said that he wished to go into the city. The educated usually place the verb 話 wó‘ first.

Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that of the accusative and infinitive.

392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually follow the sentence that contain the act.

- 領伊到學堂讀書 ’ling í tau‘ hoh dong tóh sû, take him to school, that he may learn to read.

- 請和尙拜懺 ’t’sing ú zong‘ pá‘ tsan, invite Buddhist priests to perform a service.

- 呌畵工來畵小照 kiau‘ wó‘ kong lé wó‘ ’siau tsau‘, call a painter to draw a likeness.

- 講鄕約勸士農工商做本分꜄ ’kong h’iáng yah k’iön‘ ’zz nóng‘ kóng song tsú‘ ’pun vun‘, read the sacred edict (country regulations), to induce the reading, agricultural, artisan, mid mercantile classes to perform their duties.

Obs. In English, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the final that, as the previous examples are by the explanatory that.

393. The final that or to is often expressed by the auxiliary verbs 要 yau‘, and 呌 kau‘.

- 橫勸豎勸呌伊學好 wáng k’iön‘ ’zû k’iön‘ kau‘ í hoh ’hau, use all kinds of exhortations to make him improve.

- 關窵拉籠裏要伊呌個 kwan ’tiau ’lá ’lóng ’lí yau‘ í kiau kú‘, shut birds in cages that they may sing.

Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous article, the clauses may be inverted. 要捉魚咾出去登拉更舍裏 yau‘ tsoh ng lau t’seh k’í‘ tung ’lá káng só‘ lí, in order to catch fish, he goes out to stay in the watch-hut. 咾 lau must be appended to the clause expressing the object of the action.

394. The final that being often omitted, or expressed by verbs, the way is open to form one sentence out of the two component clauses, so as to improve the general rhythmical effect. This is done in such common sentences as the following.

- 送勒儂看 sóng‘ ’lá nóng k’ön‘, I present it to you to look at.

- 講勒㑚聽 ’kóng ’lá ná‘ t’ing, I speak that you may hear.

- 話撥㑚聽 wó‘ peh ná‘ t’ing, ib.

- 撥飯伊吃 peh van‘ í k’iuh, give him rice to eat.

- 斟酌起來看 tsun tsáh ’k’í lé k’ön‘, deliberate upon it and see.

Obs. These examples differ from those of those of the next article, only in being obviously pronounced as one sentence.

395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often a single verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine).

- 捨點物事拉我吃吃 só‘ ’tíen meh zz‘ ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’iuh, give me something to eat.

- 要到店裏去買 yau‘ tau‘ tíen‘ ’lí k’í‘ ’má, go to the shop and buy it.

396. The clause containing the action frequently consists of a substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxiliary verbs of causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of motion 來, or 去 concluding the clause.

- 呌瞎子來拜斗 kau‘ hah ’tsz lé pá‘ ’teu, call a blind man to worship the north star.

- 担衣裳來晾 tan í zong lé long‘, take the clothes and hang them out to dry.

- 挪石灰漿來刷壁 nó záh hwé tsiáng lé seh pih, bring lime to white-wash the wall.

- 担馬來騎到海灘去 tan ’mó lé gí tau‘ ’hé t’an k’í‘, bring a horse and ride to the sea shore.

- 担棕來絞繩 tan tsóng lé kau zung, bring tsóng wood bark to make ropes.

- 担茄瓢舀水 tan ká biau yau ’sz, bring a cocoa-nut shell to lade water.

Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending 來 lé 去 k’í‘.

397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted between the instrumental verb, and the verb of motion.

- 担合天底下個事體來講究明白 tan heh t’íen ’tí ’au kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í lé ’kong kíeu‘ ming báh, he takes the affairs of the whole world and explains them clearly.

- 担各家人家個姓咾名頭寫拉人丁冊上 tan kok ká niun ká kú‘ sing‘ lau ming deu ’siá ’lá niun ting t’sáh long‘, take the names and surnames of every householder and write them in the register.

398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective, and is connected with it by the particle 個 kú‘.

- 做慣拉個生活勿吃力個 tsú‘ kwan‘ ’lá kú‘ sáng weh veh k’iuh lih kú‘, work to which one is accustomed does not fatigue.

- 行方便個人家子孫要多者 háng fong bíen‘ kú‘ niun ká ’tsz sun yau‘ tú ’tsé, he who gives alms will have many descendants.

- 圍困拉個城頭有四五六個 wé k’wun‘ ’lá kú‘ dzung deu ’yeu sz‘ ’ng lók kú‘, of besieged cities there are five or six.

Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with a noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the sentence, i.e. the logical subject as distinguished from the grammatical, which consists of the substantive only.

399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc. precede in the same way, the words to which they belong.

- 皇帝送個翎毛咾蟒袍總要看重個 wong tí‘ sóng‘ kú, ling mau lau ’mong bau ’tsóng yau‘ k’ön‘ ’dzóng kú‘, peacock’s feathers and embroidered tunics presented by the emperor are sure to be highly valued.

- 祖宗傳下來個派頭勿好改換 ’tsú tsóng dzén ’au lé kú‘ p’á‘ deu, veh ’hau ’ké wén‘, customs delivered down by ancestors should not be changed.

- 聖人賢人講個道理莫非三綱五常 sung‘ niun híen niun ’kong kú‘ ’dau ’lí móh fí san kong ’ú dzáng, the doctrine taught by sages and learned men is all on the three relations and five constant virtues.

- 山上泉眼出個水淸個 san long‘ dzíen ’ngan t’seh kú‘ ’sz, t’sing kú‘, water that comes from mountain springs is clear.

- 石頭造拉個房子堅牢個 záh deu ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz kíen lau kú‘, houses built of stone are strong.

Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus, 天定拉個數目人勿曉得 may also be read, niun veh ’h’iau tuh t’íen ding‘ ’lá kú‘ sú‘ máh, man does not know the times decreed by heaven.

400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and preposition forms employed to introduce the subject, which then appears in the form of a subordinate sentence.

- 話到死過以後個事體難講 wó‘ tau‘ ’sí kú‘ ’í heu‘ kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í nan ’kong, in reference to what happens after death, it is difficult discussion.

- 造到發大財是勿能個 ’zau tau‘ fah dú‘ ’dzé ’zz veh nung kú‘, as to getting rich, I cannot.

- 講到登基坐江山勿見得實蓋能造化 ’kong tau‘ tung kí ’zû kong san veh kíen‘ tuh zeh ké‘ nung ’zau hwó‘, but as to ascending the throne, and taking his seat on the rivers and mountains, it is not likely he will be so fortunate.

Obs. These words are not indispensable to the introduction of a subject as a subordinate clause; e.g. 大是大個 tú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, as to size it is large.

401. Similar to these is the construction of the verb forms prefixed to interrogative pronouns which thereby become relatives.

- 隨便那裏一樣事體要做差個 zûe bíen‘ ’á ’lí ih yáng‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yau‘ tsú t’só kú‘, whatever thing it be, he will do it wrong.

- 勿論啥官總要得賄個 veh lun‘ sá kwén ’tsóng yau‘ tuh ’hwé kú‘, mandarins of all offices whatsoever will take bribes.

- 勿拘幾許兵卒總會戰敗 veh kü ’kí hó‘ ping tseh, ’tsóng wé‘ tsén‘ bá‘, however many soldiers there be, we are sure to conquer.

402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are placed before the principal clauses.

- 住拉啥地方勿肯話 dzû‘ ’lá sá‘ tí‘ fong, veh ’k’ung wó, he is unwilling to say where he lives.

- 清明節氣幾時黃曆上有 t’sing ming tsih k’í‘ ’kí zz, wong lih long‘ ’yeu, the time at which the Tsing-ming solar period occurs, is recorded in the calendar.

- 到明朝我又到伊壗頭去 tau‘ ming tsau ’ngú í‘ tau‘ í han‘ deu k’í‘, on the next day I went to him again.

403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive, often takes the form of a subordinate introductory clause.

- 待別人要用禮貌 té‘ bih niun yau‘ yung‘ ’lí mau‘, in treating others, a man should be polite.

- 存心要存得好 dzun sing yau‘ dzun tuh ’hau, in keeping the heart, a man should keep it well.

404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs and precede the principal proposition.

- 落大雨個辰光去者 loh dú‘ ’ü kú‘ zun kwong k’í‘ ’tsé, while it was raining heavily he went.

- 照之我個想頭要換朝代者 tsau‘ tsz ’ngú kú‘ ’siáng deu, yau‘ wén‘ dzau dé‘ ’tsé, according to my idea, the dynasty needs to be changed. (or, will be, &c.,).

- 照之古聖王個話頭一心一德 tsau‘ tsz ’kú sung‘ wong kú‘ wó‘ deu ih sing ih tuh, according to the words of the ancient king, “one in heart and one in virtue.”

- 讀之七年書咾考之秀才 tók tsz t’sih níen sû lau ’kau tsz sieu‘ zé, having studied seven years, he took his degree of Bachelor.

- 囂之書開來咾讀之兩張者 h’iau tsz sû k’é lé lau tók tsz ’liáng tsáng ’tsé, having opened the book, he read two sections.

- 得勝之多囘咾末脚死拉戰塲上 tuh sung‘ tsz tá wé lau meh kiáh ’sí ’lá tsén‘ dzáng long‘, after gaining many victories, he died at last on the field of battle.

Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded by the negative particle, put at the end; e.g. 兵丁勿算武官死有五十干 ping ting veh sön‘, ’vú kwén ’sí ’yeu ng seh kûn, without counting the common soldiers, fifty military mandarins died.

Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between the subject and predicate, 貪官已經受之姓張箇銀子就拿姓李箇放拉監牢裏 t’én kwén ’í kiung ’zeu tsz sing‘ Tsáng kú‘ niung ’tsz dzieu‘ nó sing‘ ’Lí kú‘ fong‘ ’lá kan lau ’lí, the avaricious mandarin having received money from Mr. Cháng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison; 好人做之將官總勿瞎殺一個人 ’hau niun tsú‘ tsz tsiáng‘ kwén ’tsóng veh hah sah ih kú‘ niun, the good man on becoming a general, will not kill a single man without reason.

405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are connected with the principal sentence by the particle 咾 lau, or they are inserted in the principal clause with 因爲 yung wé‘ to introduce them.

- 做事體勿勸謹咾勿成功者 tsú‘ zz‘ ’t’í veh giun ’kiun lau veh zung kóng ’tsé, not being diligent in performing his duty, he did not succeed.

- 家當敗完之咾做之窮人者 ká tong‘ bá‘ wén tsz lau tsú‘ tsz giong niun ’tsé, he wasted all his property and became poor.

- 打傷之人咾帶之枷者 ’táng song tsz niun lau tá‘ tsz ká ’tsé, for beating and wounding a man, he was condemned to wear the cangue.

- 衣裳摜拉石頭上碎完者 í zong gwán‘ ’lá záh deu long sé‘ wén ’tsé, the clothes from being beaten on stones are torn to pieces.

- 總督嘸奈何咾服毒者 tsóng‘ tóh m ’né ú lau vóg dók ’tsé, the viceroy having no alternative, poisoned himself.

- 上司參之伊咾革脱之官者, ’zong sz t’sén tsz í lau kák t’eh tsz kwén ’tsé, his superior having reported him as culpable, he was discharged.

- 勿要因為事體多咾勿盡心 veh yau‘ yung wé‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú lau‘ veh zing‘ sing, do not on the ground of having so much to do, pay no attention.

Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. 因爲三代前頭題過第個名字勿可再題 yung wé‘ san dé‘ zíen deu tí kú‘ tí‘ kú‘ ming zz‘ veh ’k’ó tsé‘ dí, because three generations ago this name was used, it could not be employed again.

406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means of particles, or they are understood to be conditional from their position, or from the nature of the sentence.

a. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.

- 勿敎訓個兒子伊總要入下流 veh kiau‘ h’iün‘ kú‘ ní ’tsz í ’tsóng yau‘ zeh ’au lieu, if you do not teach your son, he will certainly fall to the lowest grade of character.

- 勿呑金原要受皇帝個埋怨咾殺脱 veh tung kiun niön yau‘ ’zeu wong tí‘ kú‘ má yön‘ lau sah t’eh, if he does not take gold and commit suicide, he must suffer the emperor’s displeasure and be put to death.

b. Examples with 末 meh, at the end of the conditional clause.

- 家裏窮末勿要怨恨爺娘勿發財 ká ’lí gióng meh veh yau‘ yön‘ hung‘ yá niáng veh fah dzé, if you belong to a poor family, you should not be discontented that your parents are not rich.

- 發財發福末勿要怠慢脫時落運個人 fah dzé fah fóh meh veh yau‘ té‘ man‘ t’eh zz loh yün‘ kú‘ niun, if you grow rich, do not treat superciliously those who are unfortunate.

- 兒子話勿來末來巴勿得要伊會話 ní ’tsz wó‘ veh lé meh, pó veh tuh yau‘ í wé‘ wó‘, if their son cannot speak, they wish much that he should be able.

- 要做好官末, 只要念頭動, 舌頭動, 筆頭動, 造出多許善事體 yau‘ tsú‘ ’hau kwén meh, tseh yau‘ nían deu ’tóng, zeh deu ’tóng, pih deu ’tóng, ’zau t’seh tú hau‘ ’zén zz‘ ’t’í, if you want to be a good magistrate, you have only to move your thoughts, tongue and pen, and you can do much good.

c. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed, introduced by conditional conjunctions.

- 若使考過秀才要伊去鄕試 zák sz‘ ’k’au kú‘ sieu‘ zé yau‘ í k’í‘ h’iáng sz‘, if he has taken his Bachelor’s degree, they wish him to go to the examination for that of Master.

- 若使勿高興讀書千方百計騙伊到學堂去 zák sz‘ veh kau hiung‘ dók sû, t’síen fong pák kí‘ p’íen‘ í tau‘ hoh dong k’í‘, if he is unwilling to learn to read, they use a thousand arts to trick him into going to school.

- 若然勿聽好說話必定敗家蕩產 záh zén veh t’ing ’hau seh wó‘ pih ding‘ bá‘ ká dong‘ ’t’san, if you are unwilling to listen to good advice, you will certainly ruin your family and lose your property.

- 倘有婚喪喜慶應該請伊吃酒 ’t’ong ’yeu hwun song ’h’í k’iung‘, yung ké ’t’sing í k’iuk ’tsieu, if there be marriages, funerals and rejoicing days, you ought to invite them to a feast.

d. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced by 旣然 kí‘ zén, or 末 meh.

- 旣然望雨落勿要惹厭日頭 kí‘ zén mong‘ ’ü loh, veh yau‘ ’zá íen‘ nyih deu, if you long for rain, still you should not murmur at sun-shine.

- 旣然嘸末勿要昨日話有 kí‘ zén m meh veh yau‘ zóh nyih wó‘ ’yeu, there being none, you need not have said yesterday that there was any.

- 旣然要末再去買末者 kí‘ zén yau‘ meh tsé‘ kí‘ ’má meh ’tsé, since you want it, go again and buy it.

e. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the midst of the principal clause.

- 但是娘子雖然聰明勿好撥伊辦外頭個事務 tan‘ ’zz niáng ’tsz sûe zén t’sóng ming veh ’hau peh í pan‘ ngá‘ deu kú‘ zz‘ vú‘, but your wife, although she be clever, you should not allow to act in matters beyond her sphere.

Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the fact that the laws of position often render particles superfluous. Thus, in adverbial phrases of succession, and, by, etc. are omitted in 一個一個 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ one by one; 一日大一日 ih nyih dú‘ ih nyih, greater and greater every day. So, prepositions are usually omitted in subordinate clauses of cause, manner, agent, etc. because they precede their subject and are readily understood. The omission of the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect conditional clauses (a).

407. If the verb and adjective groups with 得, 勿, 來 are rightly considered as originally forming independent propositions, including in themselves a subject and its predicate, they must be regarded in many instances as subordinate clauses.

a. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a predicate to a subject.

- 做勿來個事體多 tsú‘ veh lé kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú, things that cannot be done are many.

- 禮體好得極 ’lí ’t’í ’hau tuh giuh, the system of observances is excellent.

b. A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb of a preceding sentence.

- 勿好話弄勿來 veh ’hau wó‘ lóng‘ veh lé, you must not say that you cannot do it.

408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the end of a proposition that need especial notice.

a. 罷 pá‘ to end, or then there is no more to be said.

- 小銅錢換之末就罷哉 ’siau dóng díen wén‘ tsz meh dzieu‘ bá‘ ’tsé, as to the small cash, you have but to change them, that is all.

- 身邊勿帶就罷 sun píen veh tá‘ dzieu‘ bá‘, if you have none, that is enough.

- 現在話明白就是哉 híen‘ ’dzé wó‘ ming báh dzieu‘ ’zz ’tsé, you have now made it all clear, and that is enough.

- 勿肯末罷哉 veh ’k’ung meh bá‘ ’tsé, if you will not, there is an end of it.

b. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of similarity.

- 皇帝如同父母一般 wong tí‘ zû dóng ’vú ’mú ih pén, the emperor is just like one’s parents.

- 兄第忒我一樣 h’iúng dí‘ t’eh ’ngú ih yáng‘, my brother is just as I am.

- 恰像我能 hah ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, like me.

c. Some words with the negative.

- 苦惱勿堪, ’k’ú ’nau veh k’én, intolerably wretched.

- 路上爛來勿堪 lú‘ long‘ lan‘ lé veh k’én, the road is exceedingly dirty.

d. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual number 兩個 ’liáng kú‘, or 兩個字 liáng kú‘ zz‘ are appended; the former is applied to living agents, and the latter to characters as representatives of abstract nouns.

- 吾你弟兄兩個勿好爭論 ngú ’ní dí‘ h’iung ’liáng kú‘ veh ’hau tsáng lun‘, we are brothers and ought not to quarrel.

- 善咾惡兩個字本來對面個 ’zén lau oh ’liáng kú‘ zz‘ ’pun lé té‘ míen‘ kú‘, virtue and vice are originally opposite terms.

e. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern, the fragments 兩 ’liáng, 一淘 ih dau, separately or together.

- 我忒儂出外兩日咾再來 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ t’seh ngá‘ ’liáng nyih lau tsé‘ lé, you and I will go out for two days and return.

- 伊忒我一淘牽兩隻牛睏拉水裏 í t’eh ’ngú ih dau k’íen ’liáng tsáh nieu k’wun‘ ’lá ’sz ’lí, he and I together led two oxen to lie down in the water (or 一氣).

Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the predicate remains.

Section 8. Coordinate Sentences.

409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences often occur in juxtaposition without any particle.

a. There may be several subjects to one predicate.

- 文武百官鄕紳士庶禿出求雨 vun ’vú puh kwén, h’iáng sun ’zz sû‘ t’ók t’seh lé gieu ’ü, the civil and military mandarins, the gentry and common people are all come out to pray for rain.

- 按察司布政司撫臺各省有個 ön‘ t’sah sz‘, pú‘ tsung‘ sz‘, ’fú dé, kok ’sáng ’yeu kú‘, a judge, treasurer and lieutenant-governor belong to each province.

b. There may be several predicates to one subject, or several explanatory clauses to one proposition.

- 多請朋友勿兔浪用錢財廢事失業 tú ’t’sing páng ’yeu veh ’míen long‘ yúng‘ zíen zé fí‘ zz‘ seh nyih, if you invite friends much, you will not avoid wasting money and expending property.

- 風水兩個字池湖末水龍氣末風 fóng ’sz ’liáng kú‘ zz‘, dzz ú meh ’sz, lóng k’í‘ meh fóng, in the phrase wind and water, the pond represents the water, and the winding path (dragon vapour) the wind.

- 松江提督手下有前營後營左營右營中營一府裏五營 Súng kong dí toh ’seu ’au ’yeu dzíen yung ’heu yung tsú‘ yung yeu‘ yung tsóng yung ih ’fú ’lí ’ng yung, the general at Súng-kiáng has under him, the front, hind, left, right and central divisions, in all five for the whole prefecture.

410. The connective 咾 lau is very frequently introduced between groups; and the constituents of any group of coordinate words may be broken up into separate subjects, or predicates or objects by the insertion of this particle.

- 墳墓週圍種個樹木咾築個籬笆 vun mú‘ tseu wé tsóng‘ kú‘ zú‘ móh lau tsók kú‘ lí pó, round the grave are planted trees, and a hurdle hedge is erected.

- 一家裏向有爺咾娘咾小囝咾差囝咾丫頭 ih ká ’lí h’iáng ’yeu yá lau niáng lau ’siau nön lau t’sá nön lau au deu, in one family there are the father and mother, children, men and women servants.

- 知縣要管個一縣裏個漕白犯法咾咾詞訟咾騐屍個事體 tsz yön‘ yau‘ ’kwén kú‘ ih yön‘ ’lí kú‘ zau báh ’van fah lau lau zz zóng‘ lau níen‘ sz kú‘ zz‘ t’i‘, the city magistrate presides over the revenue, crimes, lawsuits and inquests of his district.

- 關稅咾兵丁咾啥是道臺管拉個 kwan súe‘ lau ping ting lau sá‘ ’zz ’tau dé ’kwén ’lá kú‘, the customs and army matters are superintended by the Intendent of Circuit.

Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that 咾 lau also frequently terminates causal subordinate sentences.

411. When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed connectedly, as with both—and—而且, 也 and 又 are employed.

- 又是長又是闊 í‘ ’zz dzáng, í‘ ’zz k’weh, it is both long and broad.

- 也要加長也要加闊 ’á yau‘ ká dzáng, ’á yau‘ ká k’weh, you must make it both longer and broader.

Obs. i. Even as an initiatory particle is expressed by 就是. 就是生意淸也勿要甩脱工夫 dzieu‘ ’zz sáng í‘ tsing ’á veh yau‘ hwah t’eh kúng fú, even if trade is slack, you must not waste time.

Obs. ii. 也 is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 外國米也有否 ngá‘ kóh ’mí ’á ’yeu ’vá, is there rice in foreign countries?

Obs. iii. When the clauses are negative, the negative particle is inserted after the conjunction, 也勿會開口也勿會動身 ’á veh wé‘ k’é ’k’eu, ’á veh wé‘ ’dóng sun, he can neither speak nor move.

412. When two objects are compared, they stand as coordinate clauses with the verb 比 ’pí between them, and the attribute of comparison at the end.

- 生果子勿此熟果子甜個 sáng ’kú ’tsz veh ’pí zóh ’kú ’tsz díen kú‘, unripe fruit cannot be compared to ripe fruit in sweetness.

- 做生意勿此念書個好 tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh ’pí nian‘ sû kú‘ ’hau, to engage in trade is not so good as studying books.

- 儂比之我年紀大 nóng‘ ’pí tsz ’ngú níen ’kí dú‘, you are older than I.

Obs. i. 又 í‘ is sometimes prefixed to the attribute; e.g. 伊比我又好 í ’pi ngú‘ í‘ hau, he is still better than I.

Obs. ii. 又 í‘ with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a separative particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it is clearly connective (both—and—) in one case, and separative in the other (neither— nor—).

413. Propositions introduced by the adversative particles only, but, yet, etc. (v. Art. 310), form another class of coordinate sentences.

- 小道理聖人賢人勿屑為但是平常人全要曉得個 ’siau ’dau ’lí sung‘ niun híen niun veh sih wé tan‘ ’zz bing dzáng niun zén yau‘ ’h’iau tuh kú‘, small matters are not attended to by the wise and learned, but ordinary people must know them.

- 好人該當親近個倒要遠開伊 ’hau niun ké tong t’sing ’giun kú‘ ’tau yau‘ yön k’é í, you ought to attach yourself to good men, but on the contrary you avoid them.

- 爺娘個棺材勿可以常停拉家裏恐防火燒 yá niáng kú‘ kwén zé‘ veh ’k’ó ’í dzáng ön ’lá ká ’lí ’k’óng bong ’hú sau, your parents coffins must not be long retained in the house, lest a fire should break out.

414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of coordinate sentences.

- 故此嘸沒出頭個日子 kú‘ ’t’sz m meh t’seh deu kú‘ nyih ’tsz, therefore there is no day of escape.

- 半個身體三個時辰浸拉水裏所以怪勿得有點勿自在 pén‘ kú‘ sun ’t’í san kú‘ zz zun tsing ’lá ’sz ’lí ’sú ’í kwá‘ veh tuh ’yeu ’tíen veh zz‘ ’zé, his body was up to the waist in water for 6 hours, and therefore it is not to be wondered at that he feels a little uncomfortable.

415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used, or the word for “cause” at the end of the sentence; sometimes both are employed.

- 勿能得勝兵丁勿好個緣故 veh nung tuk sung‘, ping ting veh ’hau ku‘ yön kú‘, he cannot conquer, because the soldiers are bad.

- 文理爲哈勿好因爲讀書少 vun ’lí wé‘ sá‘ veh ’hau yung wé‘ dók sû ’sau, why is his style of writing bad? because he has read but little.

Obs. The answer to a question requiring “because,” is very often ended with 咾 lau, which then takes that sense. But this is an irregular colloquialism, since lau as connective conjunction ought to be followed by another clause. 船吹壞脫哉風大咾 zén t’sz wá‘ t’eh ’tsé fóng dú‘ lau, the boat was broken to pieces, the wind being high.

416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already been partially illustrated in Arts, 322–330. It may in addition be observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place of conjunctions.

a. Thus for, not only—even—, we have 勿要話 veh yau‘ wó‘ and 就是 dzieu‘ zz in the supplemental sentence.

- 勿要話爺娘敎訓伊勿轉, 勿要話親友勸戒伊勿轉, 就是菩薩也點化伊勿轉 veh yau‘ wó‘ yá niáng kiau‘ h’iün‘ í veh ’tsén, veh yau‘ wó‘ t’sing ’yeu k’iön‘ ká‘ í veh ’tsén, dzieu‘ ’zz pú sah ’á ’tíen hwó‘ í veh ’tsén, do not say that his parents were unable to influence him by instruction, and his friends by exhortations; supernatural beings even could not reclaim him by their warnings.

b. English initiatory phrases, such as I suppose that, probably, are represented by 只怕, 恐怕 tseh p’ó‘, ’k’ung p’ó‘, or by 我想 ’ngú ’siáng, it appears to me that.

- 打殺之雄窵雌窵獨干子躱拉恐怕要氣殺 ’táng sah tsz yióng ’tiau t’sz ’tiau tók kûn ’tsz ’tú ’lá ’k’úng p’ó‘ yau‘ k’í‘ sah, if the male bird were killed, the female from being solitary, would probably die of grief.

Obs. i. On the one side—on the other side—are represented by the common substantive for side with—ih one in both clauses. The preposition and article are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328.

Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense let it be that, 憑儂地獄拉前面, 伊也勿肯囘心改念 bing nóng‘ tí‘ niók ’lá zien míen‘, í ’á veh ’k’ung wé sing ’ké nían‘, granting you that hell were in sights, he would still be unwilling to repent. 隨儂 sûe nóng‘, 但憑儂 ’tan bing nóng‘, are also used in the same sense.

417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of 如 zû, and some fragmentary sentences, as 比方, ’pí fong, for example.

- 病好爺娘十分快活猶如尋着之寶貝一般 ping‘ ’hau ’yá niáng zeh fun k’á‘ weh yeu zû zing zák tsz ’pau pé‘ ih pén, when they recover from sickness, the parents are delighted just as if they had found a treasure.

- 如同樹木個根 zû dóng zû‘ móh kú kun, it is like the root of a tree.

- 假如見之꜂長輩勿要忽畧伊 ’kiá zû kíen‘ tsz ’tsáng pé‘ veh yau‘ hweh liáh í, suppose that you see your elders, you must not treat them disrespectfully.

- 比如担別人家個祖宗認做自家個祖宗有第個道理否 ’pí zú tan bih niun ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, niun tsú‘ zz‘ ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, ’yeu tí‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí ’vá, if for example you take the ancestors of others, and recognize them as your own, could this be right?

Section 9. On Antithesis.

418. Of antithesis there are three kinds; (a) that of words in the formation of groups; (b) that which gives an interrogative force by the juxtaposition of positive and negative clauses, (c) That of sentences contrasted in sound or sense.

Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups, but the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after propositions, and therefore they are all placed together here.

419. Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they combine into groups are treated just as other coordinate words.

- 晝夜 tseu‘ ya‘, day and night.

- 山海 san ’hé, land (hills) and sea.

420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic groups often lose their proper character as attributives, and become substantives.

- 斬絞流徒 ’tsan kau lieu dú, beheading, strangling and banishment.

- 酸甜苦鹹 sûn díen ’k’ú han, sour, sweet, bitter, salt.

- 第條路多少遠近 tí‘ diau lú‘ tú ’sau ’yön ’giun, how far is it by this road?

421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an important grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its object expressed successively in the affirmative and negative form, asks a question.

- 去過勿曾去過 k’í kú‘ veh zung k’í‘ kú‘, have you gone or not?

Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated; e.g. 遭蹋字紙㑚想罪過勿罪過 tsau t’ah zz‘ ’tsz ná‘ ’siáng zé‘ kú‘ veh zé‘ kú‘, do you think the misuse of written-paper is a sin or not?

422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions, many consist simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing opposite qualities or actions with the negative particle.

- 有銅錢就做, 嘸沒銅錢勿要做 ’yeu dóng díen dzieu‘ tsú‘, m meh dóng díen veh yau‘ tsú‘, if you have money do it, if not you need not do it.

- 各人要心平勿要做怨恨 koh niun yau‘ sing bing veh yau‘ tsú‘ yön‘ hung‘, every one ought to be contented, and not dissatisfied.

Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples be intolerable in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of Chinese sentences make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to conversation, and allows the speaker time to prepare his next idea, without forcing his thinking faculties to a too rapid productiveness. The same advantage is obtained by the use of a long group, where in English, one or two of its constituent words would be sufficient.

423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most ornamental are those that consist of the words of a common group lengthened into clauses.

- 上有天理下合人情 ’záng ’yeu t’íen ’lí, ’hau heh niun zing, it coincides with the law of heaven on one hand, and the natural sentiments of mankind on the other.

- 先有風後有雨 síen ’yeu fóng ’heu ’yeu ’ü, wind comes first and rain after.

- 明醫家會救人, 笨醫家會殺人 ming í ká wé‘ kieu‘ niun, pun‘ í ká wé‘ sah niun, a good physician can cure men, while an incompetent one can kill them.

- 遠水救勿得近火 ’yön ’sz kieu‘ veh tuh ’giun ’hú, distant water cannot save from a fire that is near.

- 前世無讐今世無寃 zíen sz‘ vú zeu kiun sz‘ vú yön, if in a former life you were the enemy of no one, you will have no enemy in this.

- 東耳𦕰進西耳𦕰出 tóng ’ní ’tú tsing‘ sí ’ní ’tú t’seh, enter by the left ear and disappear by the right.

- 推勿轉頭挬勿轉腦 t’é veh ’tsén deu peh veh ’tsén ’nau, he cannot be brought to change for the better.

Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 文章 vun tsáng, the literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time and effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand words at command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to the care required in the general structure of the essay, that all its parts may be conformed to rule, the separate sentences must be framed in obedience to the laws of grouping and antithesis, so that there may be no infringement of the order of the words, as they stand in the ancient books.

424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of such as correspond word for word with each other in structure and relative meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.

- 債有生寃有頭 tsá‘ ’yeu ’tsû yön ’yeu deu, to every debt there is a creditor, and to every enemy a foe.

Obs. Prémare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the reader is referred.

Section 10. On Rhythmus.

425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetrically arranged. The same rhythmus that pleases and aids the reader, in such works as the Historical Novels exists in a less elaborated form in the colloquial medium of daily life. In the style of a fluent Chinese speaker, clauses of four words each, will be found to occur more frequently than of any other length. This measure may be called for the Shánghái dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last syllable of a group of two words; e.g. 財主人家有喪事要請和尚道士做做攻德 ze-tsú-niun-ká ’yeu song zz‘ yau‘ ’t’sing hú-zong‘-’tau-’zz tsú‘-tsú‘ kúng-tuh, rich men at a funeral will invite Buddhist and Taúist priests, to perform a religious service. Here there are 3 groups of four.

Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads, treating of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or rhythmical) relations respectively. Under the former might be placed, government, propositions, and a part of the system of groups. Under the latter would be properly found repetition, antithesis, and the remainder of the system of grouping. The latter might be called prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws of poetry. In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix these divisions under a common heading.

Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups as other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e.g. 大關節目 tá‘ kwan tsih móh, the general object. The last two words have no less emphasis of voice than the former, and 目 móh is distinctly accented.

Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable, the four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These classical names of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as they are of the long and short syllables of poetry. They are here used for want of better terms, just as is done by writers on English versification, to express the pronunciation of words as accented or not accented. At Súng-kiáng the fú city to which Shánghái belongs, the accent changes to the penultimate.

Obs. iv. In 讀起來看 read, and tók ’k’í lé k’ön‘, read it and try, the accent is on the first and last words of both these sentences, the middle words being enclitic.

426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of two unaccented, and one accented syllable, an anapaest; e.g. 壁立直 pih lih dzuh, exactly straight; 敲敲鼓 k’au k’au ’kú, to beat a drum; 梁惠王 liáng wé‘ wong, a king in Mencius. If the accent is on the first word of three, the foot might be called a dactyl; e.g. 做末者 tsú‘ meh ’tsé, do it. Instances of such dactyls are rare and are chiefly confined to sentences containing enclitics, which reject the accent. In some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in 放颻子 fong‘ yau‘ ’tsz, to fly a kite; 子 ’tsz as an enclitic throws back the accent on the preceding word.

427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination, which may be called iambs; i.e. 上山 ’zong san, ascend a hill.

428. Common recognized groups numbering more than four coordinate words are not very numerous. They may be readily resolved into smaller feet of two, three, or four words, by attending to the cæsura, which will be always found in them; e.g. 喜怒哀懼愛惡欲 ’h’í nú‘ é gü‘ é‘ ú‘ yóh, joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire. That mark of division occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after the second for groups of five; others may be divided into groups of two or three words each.

Obs. i. The cæsura of seven word and five word versification in good poetry, and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and second words, but variations occur according to the taste of the writer, and the exigencies of composition.

Obs. ii. By marking the cæsura, groups of four words may be divided into smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of one and two words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part of the group, and referred to in the sections on tones may be accounted for, as properly belonging to the smaller groups, or single word, to which it is affixed.

Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by the word in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is predominantly on the penultimate or antepenultimate in the former, and on the last syllable in the latter language. It is one simply of position, and is so far independent of tones on the one hand, and of the quantity of vowels as long or short, on the other. English versification is entirely regulated by the accent of position, and not by the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short. Thus in the line “our voices keep tune, and our oars keep time,” the quantity of “keep,” and “our” is long, yet they stand as short syllables. Chinese poetry is like that of England in possessing rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and short vowel quantities, such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin versification, it has one of even and uneven tones.

Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth words; e.g. 鄕下百姓 h’iáng ’au pák sing‘, country people. But it is most frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e.g. 富貴貧賤 fú‘ kwé‘ bing dzíen‘, rich and poor; 去邪歸正 k’í‘ ziá kwé tsung‘, to abandon vice and reform. When it passes to the first or third, it is because the word on which it should be is an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf. Part 1. section 3. for remarks on the accent of three-word groups.

429. From this analysis it may be concluded, that much of Chinese prose falls spontaneously into groups of two, three and four words, with an accent of position to mark them; enclitics do not usually take the accent and are very often not to be counted as independent members of the groups to which they are attached.

Obs. i. It has been already shown that the tones of a dialect are affected by the rhythmus. This happens for example, in the Amoy dialect particularly in the penultimate, where the second and seventh tones change into the high quick rising, and high quick falling respectively. In Chinese prose compositions, it is usual to end sentences with a word in the first tone, and one of the three other tones alternately. In their versification, words that rhyme have their alphabetical sound, and their tones in harmony. For an account of the use of tones in poetry, see Remusat’s grammar.

Obs. ii. The tendency of words as thus illustrated, to agglutinate into groups numerically conditioned, is made the basis of all new sentences, and insensibly regulates the composition of the native speaker. He would be quite as likely to transgress the laws of intergovernment among the parts of speech, as to overlook the rhythmus of his words.

APPENDIX I.

ON THE HIGHER COLLOQUIAL, CALLED VUN ’LI ’T’U BAH,
文理土白.

Occasionally in the preceding pages, examples have been introduced, from the style of conversation prevailing among literary men. A common knowledge of the books, and the existence of a universal mandarin colloquial, have given rise to an enlarged vocabulary of phrases bearing this name. The consideration of their etymological and syntactical peculiarities belong to the grammar of the books and of mandarin, the two sources from whence they are derived.

An example or two will be given. Among the verbs, the auxiliary of destruction 脱 t’eh, is replaced by 掉 tiau‘. 殺掉 sah diau‘, to kill; 滅掉 mih diau‘ destroy. Many new groups are also employed, whose meaning would not be understood by the common people. 燈燭煇煌 tung tsóh hwé wong, the brightness of the candle in its lanthorn; 衣冠楚楚 í kwé ’t’sú ’t’sú, his dress and hat look neat.

In carrying on conversation with the educated, it is necessary to know these phrases when they occur, and it is a great advantage to be able to use them, but in an elementary work like the present, it is enough to say that the path to that knowledge lies in the study of the books, and of the general language. This part of the colloquial medium is common ground to all dialects, where no distinction remains, but that of pronunciation. In many cases, however, phrases not used in the every-day dialect of this district, and which therefore, are considered 文理 vun ’lí, are found in the colloquial of other parts of China, much farther removed from mandarin.

APPENDIX II.

ON THE NATIVE TABLES OF INITIALS AND FINALS.

Marshman long ago made a study of these tables, for which he was peculiarly fitted from his knowledge of Sanscrit. On comparing the alphabetic system of that language with the Chinese tables, now to be considered, he at once pronounced them identical in principle. This conclusion is fully confirmed by what Chinese authors say. The explanation in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary of “the method of separating a word into its component sounds,” (切字樣法） says, “now tabulated rhymes are in the Sanscrit called 夫等韻者梵語悉曇. “Here we speak of mother characters, the sounds from which all words originate,” 此云字母乃是一切文字之母. “That which in Sanscrit is called p’í-k’á-lah is here called the division of sounds, which constitutes the foundation of the science of words,” 梵語毘佉囉此云切韻一切文字之根本 Remusat long since pointed out that the language meant by the word 梵 Fan, is Sanscrit. He says in his Life of the Grand Lama, Pa-sz-pa, translated from the Chinese History of the Mongols in Remusat’s Melanges Asiatiques, Vol. II. 145, “Ce sont les religieux Indiens qui l’ont (the 36 initials) fait connaítre á notre empire.” “Nos prêtres chinais ont retenu cet usage qu’ils avaient pris des Indiens.”[1]

The accompanying table is taken from Bopp’s Sanscrit grammar, the characters of the Chinese tables being placed instead of the Sanscrit characters.

Gutturals, | 見 ká, | 溪 khá, | 郡 gá, ghá, | 疑 ngá.
Palatals, | 知 chá, | 徹 ch’á, | 澄 djá, d’zá, | 娘 niá.
Linguals, | 端 ta, | 透 t’á, | 定 dá, dh’á, | 泥 ná.
Dental, | tá, | thá, | dá, dhá, | ná.
Labials, | 幫 pá, | 滂 phá, | 並 bá, bhá, | 明 má.
Semivocals, | 影 já (y) | 日 rá, | 來 lá, | wá (v.)
Sibilants, | sá(s’), | 審 shá(s’), | 心 sá(s), | 曉 há.

Marshman possessed a genuine philological spirit, which often appears in the midst of the somewhat extravagant theories in which he frequently indulged. He saw in the present instance, that in the Chinese spoken language, the consonants g, d, b, etc. should each commence a series of words, and this led him to the remark “that a further investigation of the Chinese pronunciation, would probably discover some vestige of this existing at the present day.” Diss, p. 37.

The passage cited in page 43, also ascribes the arrangement of these tables to a Buddhist priest; he improved upon the system of finals invented By Shin-yoh, who wrote one of the twenty one histories, viz. that of the northern Sóng dynasty.

It will now be shown that in a great part of central China such a system prevails. Before attempting to sketch the boundaries of that tract of country, a brief statement will be given of what conditions must be fulfilled, in order to identify an existing pronunciation with these relics of the Buddhist industry of former days.

By referring to the table in page 44, it will be seen that there are in all 36 initials including, beside those whose Sanscrit equivalents are now given, f, f’, v, w, z, zh, a lower h and y, and the compounds of t and d, with s, z, sh and zh.

The required dialect should have therefore an extensive system of initials, and as the modern tonic Dictionaries of Canton and Cháng-cheú, very accurately represent the dialects of those places, it may be assumed of the Dictionary tables, that they are no less careful in exhibiting the pronunciation of their time.

Among the finals, ng, n and m, terminate words in the three long tones, and the corresponding mutes k, t, p, are recognized as the terminations of words in the short tone, few of them having a vowel ending.

This is very clearly perceptible in the tables of the 字彙 a Dictionary, which was published many years before that of K’áng-hí, and in those of the Dictionary called 洪武正韻 hóng ’wú chung‘ yün‘. In the latter for example words in the short tone ending in k, are classed under 屋, 藥, 陌. Those in t are found under 質, 曷, 轄, 屑. Those in p are under 緝 合 葉 pron. tsip, etc.

The same careful separation of the finals ng, n and m is also found in these Dictionaries. The modern mandarin sound kíen, is found subdivided into the four words kíen, kiem, kan, kam; e.g. the 字彙 classes words in íen under the headings, 堅, 廉, 艱, 監. Mandarin words in óng are found under two heads, 公 kóng and 弓 kióng respectively. While the first medial i is thus affected, the other medial u is found as it is in modern mandarin spelling, except that 戈 is spelt kwo, and heads a class distinct from another which is ranged under 歌.[2]

The number of classes into which the finals are divided varies in different Dictionaries. That of the 字彙, perhaps the must convenient arrangement, consists of 44, This includes the 入聲 finals k, t, p, as the same in sound with ng, n, m. The difference between these two sets of letters, is supposed to be due only to rapid pronunciation occasioned by the tone. In that work, the finals are as follow:—

1. Kóng 公, kí 基, kung 庚, kin 巾, kiün 鈞, kwáng 光, kwei 規, kwái 乖, kwá 瓜, kié 迦, kó 歌, kán 干, kwán 關 kiem 監, keú 鉤.

2. Káng 岡, kü 居, kun 根, kim 金, king 扃, kwung 觥, kú 姑, kái 該, kiá 嘉, k’iö 㵃, kwön 官, kíen 堅, kán 艱, kaú 高, kieú 鳩.

3. Kiaú 驅, kióng 弓, king 京, tshim 簪, kwun 裩, kiáng 江, tsz 貲, kiái 皆, ná 拿, kwó 戈, kiuen 絹, kiem 兼, kam 甘, kiaú 交.

The remaining principal element of these tables is their arrangement according to tones; which are neither five, seven, nor eight, but always four. Thus, 東, 通, 同 are all in the first tone 平聲, under the initials t, t’, d. So also 兵評平明 are all in the first tone 平聲, under the initials p, p’, b, m.

Among the words registered in the second tone, are many that are in modern Chinese in the third tone. Such are—

後上動奉坐部禍倖跪近是市緖善弟道父婦犯罪造重在緩罷下丈蕩牝舅社單被倍似曙柱拒忿殍抱竪

下 being in the second tone, we see the probable reason why it was not chosen for the name of the third tone. The character 去 was preferred, because it exemplified the tone of which it was the name.

The tables thus described are employed, to spell words throughout the Chinese dictionaries from K’áng-hí and the 正字通, upwards to the T’áng dynasty and even earlier. There is but one system and one set of tones, the tone is included in the final, or second word in the 反切, Fan t’sih while the first gives the initial, and both are in constant accordance with the tables. The characters 犯 and 下 for example are always given in the 上聲 second tone, but the latter is as a verb also given in the 去聲 third tone. Different dictionaries choose different words to spell with, but the system is one; e.g. 動 is spelt with 徒 dú and 樬 ’tsóng, making ’dóng. It is added 𠀤同上聲, it is the same as dóng read in the second tone.

In considering to which system of pronunciation now existing these characteristics best apply, there occur several objections to the modern mandarin.

The mandarin of Nán-king and Yáng-cheú in Kiáng-nan, of Ngán-k’ing in Ngán-hwei, and of Ch’áng-shá in Hú-nan has five tones, viz. 上平, 下平, 上聲, 去聲, 入聲. In the northern parts of Kiáng-nan another system begins. Words in the 入聲 júh shing become distributed among the other four tones, and this peculiarity extends over the northern provinces including the metropolitan city. The 上平 and 下平 differ as much from each other, as they both do from the other tones, so that the nomenclature of tones, when first invented, could not have referred to the Nanking or Peking mandarin, as they are at present. Evidently the literati speaking those dialects have taken their names of tones from the dictionary system, and not vice versâ. Nor have these two modes of pronunciation since the Yuen dynasty any such finals as m among the long tones, or k, t, p in the júh shing. Not to insist on the differences in the medial vowel i, the want of the initials g, d, b, is another reason for our seeking elsewhere for the prototype of the dictionary system. The western provinces of China are the same in principle as to their pronunciation. Like the mandarin of northern China, they always admit the aspirate after k, t, p, in the 下平, and reject it, except in irregular instances, in all words that are in the southern and eastern provinces in the 下上, 下去, and 下入.

Further, the irregularities of the initial consonants found in the mandarin provinces, are not taken into account in the native tables. Such are the changes of ki into chi at Peking; l into n, and n into l in many dialects; the coalescing of ki and tsi in others. The 下平 aspirates, and some other changes are included in the second table formed to accompany K’áng-hí’s dictionary; yet that table is but a modern and incomplete revision of the older system.

If any one desires native tables of the mandarin pronunciation, he must look for them in the 五方元音 and such works, which give them with great accuracy; though of course their authority is not equal to that of the celebrated dictionaries already cited.

For investigating the sounds of Canton and Fúh-kien, every facility is afforded by the careful dictionaries of those systems of pronunciation that have been prepared by native authors. The Cháng-cheú dialect with its fifteen initials, and its want of a lower 上聲 is definitely marked. Although like the Canton pronunciation it contains the finals m, p, t, k, admits a medial i in words such as 弓, and rejects it in 艱, thus agreeing with the tables in some of their peculiarities, it can only be regarded so far as the tables are concerned, as an isolated, out-lying member of the general system of dialects. The finals, m, t, p, k, disappear on the Fúh-kíen coast at Hing-hwá.

The Canton dialect possesses very regular tones, none of them being inverted in pitch as in Fúh-kíen and Kiáng-sí, and it has among them the lower 上聲, or as it is usually called, the sixth tone. In this tone are found perhaps half of the words, having the dictionary initials, g, d, b, zh, z, some of which are given in page 218. But they are pronounced k, t, p, etc. E.g. 似, 倍, 柱, 重, 婦, 牝. These words with many others are in the Canton 分韻. marked lower 上聲. In mandarin they are 去聲.

Nowhere do we find such an accurate general correspondence with the tables, as in the pronunciation of the central parts of China. The tones are such, that the dictionary system is seen at once on examination to apply to them with accuracy. The alphabetical peculiarities of the native tables are found with one or two doubtful exceptions, to be embraced in a tract of country, which will now be roughly indicated.

In the north, the thick series of consonants, g, z, etc. marking the lower series, i.e. in southern China words in tones 5–8, makes its appearance in 南通州 Nán T’óng-cheú, a prefecture lying along the northern bank of the Yáng-tsz-kiáng, where it enters the ocean. The transition from d, etc. where the region of the northern mandarin is approached, is marked by the introduction of the aspirate.

Thus, 地 dí‘ becomes t’í‘, before it becomes tí‘. The two pronunciations are mixed in Chun-kiáng fú 鎭江, There the mandarin system of five tones crosses the river to the south and extends to Nanking. All round Háng-cheú bay, the two correlate series of consonants, and the four-tone system mark the colloquial dialect. Chu-san and Ningpo, Shaú-hing and Hang-cheú, on the south, are at one with Sú-cheú, Ch’áng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, on the north. Perhaps the whole of Cheh-kiáng province has substantially the same spoken medium. Passing the point where the three provinces Cheh-kiáng, Fúh-kíen and Kiáng-sí meet, the thick consonants are still found partially prevailing in the two prefectures of the latter province Kwáng-sin and Kíen-cháng, lying to the west of the Wú-í hills. But at 撫州 Fú-cheú, a little farther westward they have entirely disappeared, and are replaced by aspirates. Instead of dí‘ earth, they there say t’í, for bing sickness, p’ing, and so through all words beginning with k, t, p, in the lower series. The same peculiarity marks the Hakka dialect and that of Kiá-ying cheú 嘉應侧, in the eastern part of Canton province. Nothing can be said in the present notice of the southern parts of Kiáng-sí, but Nán-ch’áng the provincial capital has the aspirates only in the fifth tone where they should properly be, and in the other lower tones has k, t, etc. distinguished from words in the upper series, simply by difference in tone. Immediately north of this city, on both sides of the Pó-yáng lake, the broad consonants occur again. It might be expected that through Ngan-hwei, a connecting chain of dialects should link the broad pronunciation of this region, including the Potteries 景德鎮, and 南康府 on the other side of the lake, with the similar system extending over Cheh-kiáng, and a great part of Kiáng-sú. This line exists and extends through Ning-kwóh fú, but it is so narrow that it does not reach the great river on the north, nor the city of Hwei-cheú on the south. The last mentioned place has two dialects within its walls, in one of which two sets of tones exist, the tones of conversation being quite distinct from those of reading. This is independent of the alphabetical differences of the reading and the spoken sounds, which also here appear to reach their maximum. Near this city, the pronunciation varies so fast that three dialects are found in one híen. The belt of country across Ngan-hwei, where the lower series of consonants is in use, is bordered on the north by dialects containing the aspirates, that so frequently form the medium of transition to the thin consonants and fewer tones of mandarin.

Beyond the Pô-yáng lake westward, are also found the g, d, lb, initials on the banks of the 洞庭湖 Tóng t’ing hú, in Hú-nán. Boatmen from the district of 安化, on the south of that celebrated lake, may be readily conversed with by using the thick consonants in all words in the lower series of tones. Round these two lakes, the favourite resort of the Chinese muse, and from the natural beauty of which Lí Tái-puh drew the inspiration of his poetry, the same system of pronunciation with that of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, the most polished cities in China, is found to exist. This consideration with the extent of the territory thus delineated, may help to remove any strangeness in the assertion, that the native tables of sounds made in the Liáng dynasty, and copied into K’áng-Hí’s dictionary are not at all founded on the modern mandarin pronunciation, but on what is now a provincial system.

In the territory thus delineated, there is not the same uniformity in final that exists in initials. Of the three terminating consonants is the 入聲 k only is developed at Shánghái, and even this is wanting in all the large cities near, including those in the northern part of Cheh-kiáng. N is not as a final in the long tones, clearly separated from ng, and there is no representation of m.

On the other hand t and p, with their correlates n and m are found at Fú-cheú fú, 撫州府 in Kiáng-sí but k does not appear. At 南康府 Nán-káng fú, at the western extremity of the same province, p and m are distinctly represented, but there is no k or t, and ng is confounded with n. Kien and kan are distinguished at Shánghái, and in these more southerly cities. Kóng 公 is separated from 弓 kióng at Fú-cheú fú.

In dialects farther south, while the initials differ from those of the dictionaries, the consonantal terminations of the short tone are all clearly marked, and are in harmony with the ancient system. Thus we are led to the conclusion, that in regard to initials, the Kiáng-nan and Cheh-kiáng pronunciation agrees best with the written pronunciations as given in the native tables. But in reference to finals, Kiáng-sí and the southern provinces best represent them. Kiáng-sí appears to be the province that contains within its limits, the greatest number of the peculiarities in question.

In K’áng-hí’s second table, the distinction between the finals, m and n is neglected; e.g. 三 is spelt not sam but san. Further all words in the short tone are spelt with vowel finals; k, t, p, not being recognized, except as secondary forms retained out of respect to the old system. They are cut in small circles. No change is made in the tones or initials, except that words in 下平 are many of them placed in the aspirate column.

The spelling of many words in w with an initial v, and of others in y with ng or n, will be found explained in Part I. section IV. With respect to the two columns headed ch and tsh, which are the same to our ears, it may be observed, that at Sú-cheú words under the former heading are pronounced ch, and under the latter ts, indicating a natural separation between the two columns.

The resumé of this appendix, and of what was said on the Dictionary tables in the sections on the sounds at the commencement of the present work may be stated thus:—

1. The peculiarities of the tabulated initials, finals and tones are all explained, by bringing the different dialects of the three Kiáng provinces together; the aspirated f column being the only prominent anomaly that has not been illustrated.

2. The peculiarities of mandarin pronunciation, such as the interchange of some initial consonants, the prefixing of ng to many words in the upper tones (v. page 51), the coalescing of the upper and lower tones in all cases except that of the p’ing shung, the uniform occurrence of the aspirate after k, t, p, in the hiá‘ p’ing, and the loss of the short tone in the northern provinces, are all unnoticed in the old tables, while they are all recognized in modern works on sounds.

It may be remarked generally on the two systems that the tendency of words in mandarin is to coalesce in sound, while in the other system, the tendency is to more minute subdivision. The mandarin is the most widely spread, embracing two thirds of the 18 provinces.

It appears plain from the Corean and Japanese transcriptions of Chinese sounds made contemporaneous with the dictionaries, that the north of China must then have had the same dialect as that now prevailing in the kiang provinces.

A. The circumflex tones in page 9, may be further divided. The bend of the voice may be upward or downward. Perhaps the Sháng-hái fifth tone may be best described, as sometimes a low slow falling circumflex, (l.s.f.c.) and at other times as a low even tone (l.s.e.). There would with this extension of the natural tones mentioned in section 2. be seven starting from the same key, viz. The even, rising, falling, rising circumflex, falling circumflex, rising short, and falling short tones. If subdivided into an upper and lower key, they become fourteen, and if considered according to their time as quick or slow, we have in all (the short tones not admitting of this subdivision) 24 natural tones.

B. If Roman numerals i to viii be used for the eight tones, the changes of tone occurring in combination in our dialect may be represented as follows:—In the groups v—i, and viii—i, i become v. In ii—ii; ii—vi, vi—vi and vi—ii, the last tone often becomes i, or else former becomes iii or vii. In iii—iii, iii—vii, the former becomes ii. In v—v, iv—v, v does not change, but in other cases v becomes i.

[1] In Julien’s “Methode pour transcrire les noms Sanscrits dans les livres Chinois,” p. 2; he states that Remusat first published this discovery in 1811.

[2] For a general view of the changes undergone in vowels since the tables of sounds were made, for example changes from u to ú, o to ia, chi to ch, sí to sz, ui to ei, ü to ú, é to í, á to ó, ó to á, etc. v. Grammar of Mandarin Dialect, ch. 8, § 5.

Transcriber’s Notes.

- Footnotes have been numbered and placed at the end of the associated grammar article.

- Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text.

- Hyphenation variations are unchanged.

- The cover/title page image has been retouched to remove flaws.

- This book contains some rarely used forms of Chinese characters. Any eReader should contain as full a set of fonts as possible.

- The original book is available at the HathiTrust Digital Library.

Page 5: The "Fifteen vowels" and "Thirty three consonants" were one table. They are split here for ease of layout.

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Table of Contents

- A GRAMMAR OF COLLOQUIAL CHINESE, AS EXHIBITED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT

- PREFACE

- TABLE OF CONTENTS.

- PART 1. ON SOUND.

- Section 1. Alphabet.

- Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect.

- Section 2. On the Tones.

- Section 3. On the Shanghai tones.

- Section 4. Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds.

- PART II. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

- Section 1. Native divisions.

- Section 2. Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects.

- Section 3. On the Substantive.

- Section 4. On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives.

- Section 5. On the Adjective. 呆 虛 字.

- Section 6. On the Pronoun.

- Section 7. On the verb, 活虛字.

- Section 8. Prepositions and Postpositions.

- Section 9. On Adverbs.

- Section 10. Conjunctions.

- Section 11. Expletives and Interjections.

- PART III. ON SYNTAX.

- Section 1. On Government.

- Section 2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech.

- Section 3. Government of words in groups or combinations.

- Section 4. On Repetition.

- Section 5. Order in groups.

- Section 6. Simple Propositions.

- Section 7. Subordinate Sentences.

- Section 8. Coordinate Sentences.

- Section 9. On Antithesis.

- Section 10. On Rhythmus.

- APPENDIX I.

- ON THE HIGHER COLLOQUIAL, CALLED VUN ’LI ’T’U BAH, 文理土白.

- APPENDIX II.

- ON THE NATIVE TABLES OF INITIALS AND FINALS.

- Transcriber’s Notes.

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE